Anglo Saxon England, Term Paper Example

Introduction

Historically, dominant cultures overtake the lands and peoples they invade, and in ways usually eliminating the native.  Invasion, moreover, can take a less overt form; while Spanish conquest virtually eradicated the societies of the Incas in South America, a consistent influx of Europeans rendered the Native American cultures of North America marginal, at best.  This is, it seems, the way of the world, and certainly of the worlds before the modern era.  If conquerors rewrite history, they also replace completely that which they occupy, and create entirely new cultures carried over from their homelands.  An exception to this is Anglo-Saxon England, which remains today a unique amalgam of vast influences merged over centuries to create a singular identity.  With the slow collapse of the Roman Empire, England was prey to hordes from Scandinavian nations, which most certainly imprinted themselves in a lasting way.  Then, the steady rise of Christianity also exerted enormous cultural, governmental, and social influences.  Even as these changes occurred as individual processes, however, the nation itself was never fully divested of any; what happened, in fact, was an immense, lengthy, and seemingly unlikely fusion into the entity known as Anglo Saxon England.  Certainly, some influences have had greater impact than others, as the vestiges of Roman occupation are today barely discernible. What matters, however, is that they were nonetheless embedded into what may be called the persona of the nation, as would be true of ensuing forces.  The persistent powers of varying influences, including Roman, Saxon, and Christianity, did not supplant one another, but instead combined and evolved to create the unique and enduring entity of Anglo Saxon England.

Discussion

It is tempting to pass by Iron Age England as undeveloped and primitive before the arrival of the Romans.  The view is understandable; there was no cohesive society in place, and the widely varied terrain of England itself encouraged pockets of living vastly different from one another.  Such a view, however, ignores two elements critical to the development of Anglo Saxon England, even as it exists today.  The first is that, while certainly isolated, the island was nonetheless engaged in trade from Europe that was perpetually introducing new ideas and items.¹  This process, moreover, could occur in a way allowing England to adapt at its own pace. As an island, it was less subject to more overt influence in the form of aggression, and the people could assess the new in relative safety, and accommodate it to their own needs.  Then, the fact that the island contained so many distinct geographies within it may be pointed to as exemplifying what would become a national trait: fierce pragmatism, and a reliance only on available resources.  This factor rendered the forming of a larger, cultural identity a much slower process than in other nations.² It would also facilitate the force of a massive, unifying presence like the Roman occupation.

As is well documented, the Roman occupation of England was hardly a smooth progression, despite the enormous power of the empire.  Conquests, beginning with Caesar’s entry into Britain from Gaul in 55 B.C.E., took the form of multiple attempts.³   It may also be argued that, notwithstanding the eventual success of Roman occupation in England and its inestimable impact on the island, conquest itself was never fully achieved.  The British, in the Iron Age and before, were predominantly Celtic and this, combined with the territorial differences among their settlements, presented an obstinacy that not even the power of Rome could fully subdue.  In time, Rome would imprint itself in virtually every aspect of English culture and life, but there would also remain a persistent degree of adherence to Celtic and Druid customs.  The contributions of Rome, the debatable methods employed to bring them about notwithstanding, resided primarily in bringing order to a chaotic and fragmented society.  Rome built roads connecting villages which then were enabled, by means of the commerce now available, to expand into cities.  Then, Roman styles became prominent, simply because those Romans of high rank installed in Britain built their homes and lived their lives in accordance with what they had known.  Mining became an important industry, as Rome required English tin and other metals, and agriculture thrived to meet the Roman demand to export wheat to its other lands.

It is crucial to reiterate, however, that all of this immense Roman reconstruction of England did not ever entirely subsume the native people.  The Celts adopted several means of maintaining their own presence.  Some fled to Wales or to Scotland, to escape the cultural and governmental oppression; others were at least outwardly complicit, but in secrecy held to their Druid beliefs and customs. The resistance also often took overt forms, as Rome was intolerant of deviation.  When a colony of Druids sought to establish a safe haven on the island of Mona, Suetonius Paulinus ordered its massacre. ⁴    Moreover, these episodes are seen as occurring throughout the lengthy occupation of England, which indicates that the Celtic English were, if willing to enjoy the advantages and tolerate the authority brought from Rome, they were not prepared to surrender what was perceived as identity.

The decline of Rome has been explored endlessly and, with regard to the development of the Anglo Saxon culture, it is interesting to note that the Roman loss of Britain was merely one in a series of surrenders made by the empire over hundreds of years.  Rome had occupied England as an annex, and one to exploit to meets the needs of the greater empire; by the 3^rd century C.E., as concessions to barbarians were no longer satisfying them, the inevitability of collapse was on the horizon. ⁵   It may then be argued that there was in the native Celts an awareness of the potential, transitory nature of the Roman occupation.  While this lasted hundreds of years, it is likely that the native Britons nonetheless comprehended an aspect to the situation lost on the Romans; namely, that, as an independent and island people, they would face an eventual retreat of this vast influence due to circumstances arising in the wider realms of European affairs.

To deny a lasting influence of Roman culture on the English is to erase a foundation of Western history applicable to the entire West.  There may be few, if any, remains of Roman villas left standing in England, as there are only historical accounts of allegiance to Roman theology and authority to reveal the once immense influence they held.  At the same time, it is irrefutable that the Roman occupation brought to England something which would last beyond centuries of further change, and also go to generating how England would adapt in that future: a widespread awareness of itself as a nation, and the introduction of systems created to make the most of an immense territory as a functioning state. ⁶ Rome, over many years and despite frequent outbreaks of rebellion, revealed to the English that unification was not only possible, but desirable.  In acknowledging and trading with settlements throughout the island, the interests of all could be served.  The Roman Empire infused itself into English life in more tangible ways, of course, from the creations of the first, widespread systems of laws to the introduction of Latin and the alphabet.  These impacts notwithstanding, however, Rome provided England with evidence that, no matter whose authority was in place, it was an entity unto itself, and of proportions limited only by the degrees of cooperation among its people.

As the empire dissolved, a new factor took its place, and in ways as traumatic as the initial Roman conquests.  Rome was falling steadily to barbarian forces from the North, and that same region would be quick to seize upon England’s new vulnerability.  The age of the Saxon invasion was just beginning as, not coincidentally, Rome was vacating, and this too would have lasting effects on the development of the English.  It is generally held that the British returned to native customs as the Romans left.  It is certainly known that, no matter the lingering traditions of systems ideologies left by Rome, there was widespread disorder, and the Scots and Picts were the first to take advantage of this.  Looting, once controlled by Roman authority became rampant early in the 5^th century; the response was a reversion to virtually tribal modes of living.  The Scots and Picts would be eclipsed, however, and quickly.  In very little time, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes descended on England from the east and the north.  How these forces came to reside in England, rather than only taking the form of raiding parties, is a subject of continued debate.  Some maintain that Saxon and Jute settlements arose simply because the rough seas rendered returns home too dangerous, or impossible; it was easier to build a camp than to make the way back home.  Others, however, view these occupations as deliberate.  The Norse had already a tradition of colonizing, if of a violent variety.  The same methods came into play, as hordes of Saxons did not merely stake claims to unused lands.  They introduced barbarism and outright murder to take what they wanted, and there is no doubt that England was under siege in these years, even if the raiders were inclined to stay. ⁷

How these visitations impacted on England from the 5^th to the 11^th centuries has been extensively researched.  Until relatively recently, it was believed that the Anglo-Saxon settlements were little more than primitive collections of huts, wherein the invaders lived existences of simply taking what they required to survive each day.  New excavations, however, reveal a strikingly different reality, and one strangely going to the ways in which cultures develop.  That is to say that, as years passed, the aggressive or warlike nature of the Saxons became infused into the mainstream culture, and simply because degrees of cooperation were essential for all concerned.  At least 28,000 agricultural settlements have been recorded as existing in the late Romano-British period, and this points to an integration of Saxons not necessarily violent.  More exactly, there was still a construct in place that imposed limitations of its own. ⁸   Any commercial organization, even that which is agricultural, creates a framework which must be observed when – and this is critical – all concerned parties are there to stay, as the Saxons and Jutes were.  Consequently, with commerce comes interaction of a non-violent nature, and it inevitably came to pass that the savage, invading Saxons of 430 were,  by 500, marrying the daughters of British farmers.

It is interesting to speculate, then, on the contrasting ambitions and consequences of the Romans and the Saxons.  The former came to add to an empire, and exert absolute control.  Driven away by circumstances beyond it control, it left behind, aside from the tangible assets of an introduced language and concepts of rule, an idea of order as being possible.  The Saxons and their peers came similarly to exploit but, coming from no such immense base of power, were drawn to remaining as the more significant advantage, and this was enabled, to an extent, by the Romans before them.  More exactly, the British now had an understanding that outsiders in vast numbers could be accommodated within the island, and to the benefit of England itself. This in itself indicates how no such presence in England’s history has faded completely, or not left behind extensive influence.   More to the point, it denies that the Roman influences had been erased by the later invaders; they were, in effect, inherited by them, if in a conceptual manner.

Added to all of this is the element of Christianity, and occurring throughout both major influences.  If Constantine of Rome was promoting the acceptance of it throughout the empire, his timing was poor as, by the 3^rd century, Rome’s hold was weakening universally.  Consequently, Christianity in England existed as an ancillary theology, both embraced by some and ignored by pagans.  It did not, however, vanish, and this is then a truly lasting Roman contribution to England.  It was also one reinforced, if in a passive sense, by the new invaders.

It is important to note that, as opposed to Roman issues and later misgivings about the efficacy of Christianity, there is no testimony or evidence indicating anything but an open attitude towards the faith from the Anglo-Saxons.  They were unconcerned with it, and did not persecute its practitioners in any form. ⁹   This very much enabled the steady, if slow, rise of the faith throughout the island.   It also carried with it a contribution to the totality of English life that may be said to be due to both Roman and Saxon influences.  Literacy had rapidly declined with the absence of Rome, but it was revived under the Saxons by means of their accepting the instructors of the faith. ¹⁰ Simply,  as Christian monks became more common in England, writing became infused into the entire culture, and it had essentially not been seen since the Roman exit in the early 400s C.E.  It is extraordinary to reflect, in fact, that the rise in literacy in England in these years was owed very much to a simple willingness on the part of the “savage” Saxons, unintentionally promoting ambitions that had disappeared with Rome.

Conclusion

It may be reasonably argued that history, if not life itself, would be immeasurably simpler of tides of conquest removed all traces of previous cultures.  To some extent, that is what has occurred, as in the Spanish destruction of the Incas.  At the same time, this same “replacement” process greatly damages civilization itself, aside from whole populations, because so much is lost.  In England, as elsewhere, it has been inevitable that successive invaders have predominantly exerted their influences over existing conditions, but what matters is that a great deal of good remains.  This is evident in the trajectory of Roman, Saxon, and Christian forces in shaping Anglo Saxon England.  This was a state evolving from multiple circumstances, and not one generated by nothing more than an obliteration of what was once in its place.  Ultimately, the unique presences of varying influences, including Roman, Saxon, and Christianity, did not supplant one another, but instead combined and to create the equally unique and entity of Anglo Saxon England.

Bibliography

Bazerman, Charles.  Handbook of Research on Writing: History, Society, School, Individual, Text. New York: Routledge, 2008.

Bridbury, A. R.  Medieval England: Its Social and Economic Origins and Development. Leicester: Troubadour Publishing, 2008.

Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire.  New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009.

Hamerow, Helena.  Rural Settlements and Society in Anglo-Saxon England.  New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Lehane, Brendan.  Early Celtic Christianity.  New York: Continuum Publishing, 2006.

Pounds, N. J. G.  The Culture of the English People: Iron Age to the Industrial Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Power, Eileen.  Medieval People.  New York: Harper & Row, 1924.

¹ Pounds, N. J. G.  The Culture of the English People: Iron Age to the Industrial Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. p.  32.

²   Ibid. p. 33.

³   Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire.  New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009.

⁴   Ibid., p. 81.

⁵  Power, Eileen.  Medieval People.  New York: Harper & Row, 1924. p. 3.

⁶  Lehane, Brendan.  Early Celtic Christianity.  New York: Continuum Publishing, 2006. p. 12.

⁷  Bridbury, A. R.  Medieval England: Its Social and Economic Origins and Development. Leicester: Troubadour Publishing, 2008.

⁸ Hamerow, Helena.  Rural Settlements and Society in Anglo-Saxon England.  New York: Oxford   University Press, 2012.

⁹  Bridbury, A. R.  Medieval England: Its Social and Economic Origins and Development. Leicester: Troubadour Publishing, 2008.

¹⁰ Bazerman, Charles.  Handbook of Research on Writing: History, Society, School, Individual, Text. New York: Routledge, 2008.  p. 160.