Molecular Medicine, Term Paper Example

The six types of Cytokine Receptors are:

1. Type I Cytokine Receptor: The structure of these receptors is linked with JAK family of kinases tyrosine and examples include: EPO, TPO, CNTF, LIF receptors.
2. Type II Cytokine Receptor: They have the structure of NMR binding to ectodomain receptor of human interferon. Examples include: IFN-alpha receptor, IFN beta, Type II IL receptors.
3. Superfamily of Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor (TNFR): The structure of this receptor is rich in Cysteine and lies in the ectodomain of TNFR. Examples are TNFRSF5/CD40, TNFR/CD30 etc.
4. Chemokine Receptors: The structure of this receptor comprises of seven transmembrane helix and examples are XC, CC, CXC chemokine receptors.
5. Beta receptors-TGF: The structure of this receptor has protein kinase named Serine and examples are TGF beta receptor 1 and 2.
6. Super family of Immunoglobins (ig): This comprises of antibodies Shane structure with immunoglobins.

Different Steps in the signal transduction pathway

Majority of the receptors of cell surface stimulates the target enzymes intracellular structure which may be linked indirectly or directly coupled by G proteins to the receptors. These enzymes intracellular serves as the elements signaling downstream that amplify and propagates the initiates signal by the binding ligand. In certain cases, the reactions chain transmits signals from the surface of the cell to different targets of intracellular structure. The steps involved in this signal inductions are pathways that comprises of transcription factors functioning to the gene expression regulation. Other step involved is the connection of these pathways to the nucleus cell surface leading to the expression gene in relation to the stimuli extracellular.

Cell Death Signaling and Chemotherapy

How anti-cancer drug kills cancer

The genes of anticancer acts in a fashion which is dominant to help kill cancer. These genes overexpresses ectopically by destroying the tumors cells without damaging the cells that are normal. This destruction of the cell can come in different modes like mitotic catastrophe, apoptosis followed by necrosis and autophagy. These genes have been emerged from the cancer cells and figured out by the recent studies. These genes include Apoptin, encoded with anemia chicken genome virus which was the first gene of anti-cancer that was isolated. The adenovirus E4orf4 is the viral protein that is known for the killing capabilities of the tumor cells. Hamlet is a protein of milk ?-lactalbumin and is proficient against cancer cells. The therapies used for killing cancer cells are Hamlet, Mda-7 and Trail therapies which are the most advanced clinically for killing cancer cells. These are tested currently in the type I and II of the clinical trials.

Neurodegenerative Disorders and Signaling in Neuro biology

Phases of an Immune response and role played by innate immune cells

The first phase is encountered when an antigen becomes activated. After the activation, the population of lymphocytes divide and expands keeping pace with the microbes expanding population. Initially there are few lymphocytes that are naïve which are specific for body one antigen. After the division of the cells, they differentiates into effector types and the antigen is removed. Majority of the lymphocytes undergo the process of apoptosis which makes the body return to the state of homeostasis. So, the three phases are activation of antigen, antigen elimination and contraction.

The role played by innate immune cells (dendritic, macrophages and microglia)  is that these cells process antigen material and present it on to the surface of immune system T cells. They work as the agents between adaptive and innate immune system.

Glatiramer acetate

It is known as Copolymer 1 and is a drug which is immuno-modulator which presently treats sclerosis multiple. It is the polymer which is random and comprises of 4 amino acids which are found in the basic protein myelin. These four proteins are lysine, tyrosine, glutamic acid and tyrosine. This woks as the immune system decoy. Glatiramer acetate is approved by the Drug Administration of Food (FDA) for limiting the relapses frequency but not for the reduction of disability progression. The studies indicates that the trials that are randomized and controlled reduces the disability progression. Glatiramer acetate is treatment approved after the episodes which are single. It is also used in the remitting multiple sclerosis treatment. The subcutaneous injection administer this.

Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine

Characteristics and properties of an ideal vector for gene therapy

Following are the characteristics and properties of an ideal vector used for gene therapy.

Easy production

The gene therapy vector needs to be produced easily on the commercial scale at titre which is high. The stems consideration comprises of different ranges of number cells that needs to be transduced. This can be done from stem cells handful to the reconstituting of the repertoire of hematopoietic to more cells inducing at -10% for the liver. For a use that is widespread, the vector should be processed and amenable for the commercial production like to concentration technology and have a suitable shelf life for distribution and transportation.

Sustained production

Once the vector is delivered it must be able to express the cargo genetic over the expression and sustained period and must be in a precise way regularly. Various states of diseases have different requirements like diabetes and expression of lifetime hemophilia.

Immunologically inert

The components of the vector should not elicit in the delivery of an immune response. An antibody of humoral response will, make the injection second to that of the ineffective vector whereas the response of cells will remove the cells transduced.

Tissue targeting

The certain types of cell delivery is desirable highly especially where the cell targets are dispersed throughout the body like the system of hematopoietic. If the cells are the population of heterogeneous part then the antigen presenting the cells of the body plays a role in the immune response meditation. The targeted vectors or cell tissue presents a big challenge which offers rich dividend for the approached of gene therapy.

Size capacity

There is no size limit for the vector which limits the genetic material which it delivers. The sequence coding of the gene therapeutic varies from base pairs of 350 for the insulin over base pairs of 12,000 for dystrophin. Moreover, the regulatory sequences additional may be needed for the efficient expression and transduction for the genetic material foreign.

Signaling in Cancer Gene therapy and Cancer

Explanation of 4 classic types of gene therapy approaches for cancer

The four classic types of gene therapy for cancer approaches are hemophilia, bone marrow transplantation, ADA-SCID and use of T-lymphocytes in cancer treatment.

The hemophilia gene therapy gives an effective cost treatment which repeats the patients for hemophilia to be injected with the FIX and FVIII recombinants. This also avoids complexities in the protein contamination or pathogens in the proteins injected. The research currently shows the best deal to simultaneously transfer the genes for an immune response.

The most basic types of Gene therapy is blood transfusion of bone marrow. The transplantation of bone marrow is the choice of treatment which comprises of lymphoma and leukemia. These are used for the treatment of inherited disorders ranging from thalassemia and rare disorders like the SCID disease. The main success of this type if the donor ‘immunological matching’.

The Cell therapy and Gene therapy overlaps the SCID treatment. There are two more types of Gene therapy in treating cancer. One is the ADA-SCID which is caused by the mutation disabling of Adenosine Deaminase gene and the X-SCID which is caused by the mutations disabling of IL-2 receptors chain gamma gene. It is also known as gamma chain. The SCID gene therapy is unable to mount the response that is immune to the pathogens that are common unless there are severe infections.

Comparison of advantages and disadvantages of stem cells of human embryonic

The adult stem cells and the human embryonic each have disadvantages and advantages relating to the use of potential regenerative therapies which are cell based. One of the major different between stem cells embryonic and adult cells is their abilities difference in the type and number of cells differentiation they can transform into. Stem cells embryonic can change into all types of cell of the body due to their nature of being pluripotent. Stem cells of adult are thought to be linked to various cell types in differentiating the origin of tissue usage.

Stem cells embryonic have grown easily relatively in culture. The stem cells of adults are rare in the tissues nature, so these cells isolation from the tissue of an adult is challenging. The methods to expand in culture of cell and their numbers have not been successful yet. This is a crucial distinction as the cells larger numbers are required for the replacement therapies of stem cell. It is believed by the scientists that these tissues are derived from the adult and embryonic stem cells and may change in likelihood after transplantation be rejected. It is not known yet that the derived tissues from the stem cells embryonic would cause the rejection of the transplant and few clinical trials have been successful relatively too derived from the transplanted cell tests from heSCS.

The stem cells of adult and the derivation of tissues from them are likely to be initiated after transplantation a rejection. This is due to the own patient cells expansion in the culture coaxed into specific types of cell differentiation. These are given into the patient and reintroduced. The tissues and use of stem cells of adult means that these cells are more likely to be discarded by the immune system.

Characteristics and Properties of an ideal vector for delivering Gene therapy

In order for a therapy of gene to be successful, a large amount of therapeutic gene must be given into the tissue which is large without the toxicity. The adequate amount of the therapeutic specific gene varies greatly. For few of the disorders, the expression of therapeutic gene changes over time and little cell proportions are sufficient. For other disorders, the therapy of gene requires huge level of expression even days.

Each of the vector which is viral has its own profile and characteristics in relation to the target cell and designated type/ For instance, the viral vector uses the treatment of diseases of the brain which is neurotropic form. It means that these vectors seek out brains nerve cells. Other major properties of these vectors comprises of the genetic message length it carry as well as its safety, efficacy and specificity.

The viral vectors choice for the therapy of gene is more complicated by the vector possibility to be inserted into the genome cell place where it transforms other gene cells as functional. This is known as promiscuous expression of the gene and is harmful for the cells or tissue of the patient.

Major Safety Concerns linked with clinical use of viral vectors for Gene therapy deliverance

The process of therapy of gene seem to be straightforward but is has numerous issues and is an overs implication. This is because risk exists in the gene therapy prevention using vectors that are viral. These viruses effect usually more cell types/ Thus, when these vectors viral are applied to carry into the body the genes, they might also infect the cells which are healthy or the cells of cancer.

Another harm these genes may have that if they are inserted in the location which is wrong in the DNA, a possible cause of mutation to the DNA which is harmful may be caused and leads to cancer. This occurs mostly in the X-linked (X-SCID) patients in those stem cells of hematopoietic are transduced with the transgene corrective using a retrovirus. Moreover, when there is delivery to DNA to cells using viruses inside the body of the patient, there is a little chance that the DNA could be introduced into the patient using cells of reproduction unintentionally.