A Model of Child Guidance, Research Paper Example

Abstract:

Child guidance offers a positive approach to help children learn how to behave, without subjecting them to authoritarian discipline. It promotes positive citizenship behaviors based on love of learning, love of others, and love of self. Instead of punishing children for infractions, child guidance helps them to be all that they can be by creating a supportive environment, promoting good behaviors, and correcting negative behaviors without attainting the child.

Introduction

Child guidance is, fundamentally, an alternative to the more punitive methods of discipline: it is a framework for teaching children self-esteem, regard for others, and love of learning without negative, punitive, authoritarian measures (Gartrell, 2014; Miller, 2010). Indeed, considering the inadequacy of some of the more traditional approaches, which badly damage self-esteem and actually encourage much misconduct, child guidance may be thought of as a necessity (Snyder, Cramer, Afrank, & Patterson, 2005; Wheatley et al., 2009). The advantages of child guidance are manifold, and they all stem from the fact that it promotes a positive, supportive, nurturing learning environment. Following the approach of child guidance, the adult is a leader, not a boss, who leads by example. In leading by example, the teacher models many positive behaviors, and helps young people to learn to love learning, their peers, and themselves.

Theoretical Orientations

Now concerning theoretical orientations, the guidance tradition is heir to a great many Indeed, the history of the guidance tradition arguably goes back four centuries, rooted as it is in the work of theorists and learned scholars of a progressive orientation. Foundationally, the guidance tradition is concerned with the cultivation of democratic life skills, and service to this it inculcates autonomy, balanced by interdependence based on participation in such social groups as the family, the school, the workplace, the church or other house of worship, and the like (Gartrell, 2014). The axiomatic assumption here is that human nature is improvable: humanity is capable of good, a capacity which must be encouraged, rather than coerced by means of rigorous, authoritarian discipline (Gartrell, 2014). Thus, encouragement brings out the best in people.

The guidance approach promotes the achievement of five goals (Gartrell, 2014). The first of these goals is to find acceptance from others, in order to be considered a member of a group and a worthy individual in one’s own right. The manifold importance of this is very easy to see, inasmuch as it recognizes the needs of the individual for community. The second skill is to be able to express one’s self, specifically one’s strong emotions, in ways that do not cause harm to others or to self. The third skill is learning how to solve problems in a creative fashion, whether on one’s own or in company with others. The fourth skill is the practice of acceptance, whereby one is accepting of uniqueness in other people. Finally, the fifth skill is the ability to think both intelligently and ethically (Gartrell, 2014). By cultivating all of these skills, the young child can become a good citizen as well as a fulfilled and interesting person in their own right.

This approach has a long tradition. Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) was a very important figure in the history of progressive education. Froebel broke with much of what was considered to be wisdom at the time regarding the raising of children. His realization that play was integrally connected to learning in young children has proven transformative (Miller, 2010). Froebel actually encouraged children to play, and sought to stimulate their learning by creating materials for them, materials that would teach them through play (Miller, 2010). It is thanks to Froebel that it is now common practice to give young children blocks to play with, and other toys that encourage them to learn about the properties of physical things, and develop skills. Froebel’s realization that play can be used to stimulate learning is one of the integral pillars of the guidance approach, and is therefore of great importance for the model at hand.

Another key pioneer of the theoretical underpinnings of the guidance approach was John Dewey (1859-1952). Dewey was, in so many ways, the father of progressive education in America (Gartrell, 2014). While he never abnegated the idea that the teacher should be in charge of the classroom, Dewey also encouraged models of pedagogy allowing children a considerable degree of autonomy. The teacher, Dewey contended, did not have to micromanage everything: the teacher could give their students a great degree of freedom in the classroom, while still setting certain guidelines and expectations. Dewey also believed in child-centered, hands-on learning, engaging children by allowing them to try things and do things. This was a sharp contrast with the conventions of the time, which emphasized learning by rote (Miller, 2010). As a result, Dewey’s approach is remembered for the way that it stimulates learning in children.

The work of Alfred Adler and his pupils is also of considerable theoretical relevance for the child guidance approach. Adler believed in the necessity of developing the ability to be interconnected with others in a group: he believed this benefited both the individual and the group (Gartrell, 2014). He also believed that individuals needed to overcome feelings of inferiority that resulted from their helplessness as children. Those who did not do so successfully developed inferiority complexes or hypercompetitiveness. The way to avoid this, Adler believed, was for adults to support children by being encouraging, but not either permissive or dictatorial: in other words, finding a good via media is essential for promoting the healthy development of the child (Gartrell, 2014). By avoiding extremes, the adult can promote healthy development.

Adler’s pupils, like him individually-focused, so-called ‘self psychologists’, also contributed to the theoretical underpinnings of the child guidance approach. The central premise of these self psychologists was inherited from Adler: if children felt both safe and valued in a given context, “they would see themselves positively and would not need to act out against the world” (Gartrell, 2014, p. 14). Self-esteem emerged as a key focus of research and classroom practice, with the idea that children with poor self-esteem do not develop in a healthy fashion. One particular ramification for practice which remains quite influential is the idea that threats are never acceptable in the classroom: the teacher must not ever threaten students, not under any circumstances. Threats and punishment produce stress, which undermines healthy personal development (Gartrell, 2014). Development without stress, then, indubitably leads to better health and happiness for the children so brought up.

Rudolph Dreikurs was one of the most famous and influential of Adler’s pupils. Dreikurs was one of the fathers of the “positive discipline” movement, and the shift away from a more traditionally authoritarian conception of the teacher’s role, the teacher as boss, to a more guidance and encouragement-based conception of the teacher’s role, or the teacher as leader (Gartrell, 2014). Dreikurs also advocated that teachers encourage their students more regularly, and he differentiated encouragement from praise: praise is a specific form of encouragement, but there are many different kinds. A teacher can tell a student to “keep it up” as a form of encouragement, even if this is not praise exactly (Gartrell, 2014). Thus, the teacher is constantly encouraging their students to make progress and succeed.

Dreikurs also cast a great deal of light on why it is that children misbehave. He argued that misbehavior, like all behavior, is directed towards achieving certain goals (Gartrell, 2014). Misbehavior, he held, was simply a way for children to attempt to get what they wanted, whether attention, or some item, and so on. Dreikurs argued that certain quite specific goals underlay children’s conflicts: first, the desire for attention; second, the desire for power; third, the desire for revenge, and fourth, as a means of displaying inadequacy—the idea being that if they show they are incapable of doing something, others will take pity on them and relent. Other psychologists, however, have challenged Dreikurs’ views, arguing that although social acceptance is very important, it is less of the end in itself that Dreikurs believed it to be, and more of a means to an end (Gartrell, 2014). If it is a means to an end, social acceptance may be thought of as a way to obtain friendships, emotional support, and in many cases, material resources.

Following Piaget, too, there is a clear need for children to learn by interacting with their environments. Piaget held that children developed through a series of stages, with each characterized by certain levels of achievement. In the sensorimotor stage, from birth to two years, children use a trial and error approach to learning, relying heavily on the development of their senses and motor skills (Worsham & Ward, 2013). From two to seven years, young children pass through the preoperational stage, wherein they learn to use symbols to represent things mentally. However, Piaget believed that their thinking remains extremely egocentric: they may be literally incapable of understanding that other people see the world differently than they do (Worsham & Ward, 2013). This, of course, has profound ramifications for children’s behavior, because they are unable to see things from the perspective of others.

Piaget also believed—though this has been challenged significantly by subsequent findings—that during this stage, children’s thought was characterized by a lack of reversibility: they were incapable of understanding, for example, that a certain quantity of water remains the same whether it is poured into a wide glass or a tall, narrow glass (Worsham & Ward, 2013). From seven to eleven years, children pass through the concrete operational stage, wherein they develop skills of logical reasoning. Their linguistic abilities progress too. However, Piaget believed they remained incapable of abstract thought. Beginning at about eleven years, children entered the formal operational stage, which continues through adulthood. In this stage, children, young people, and adults are capable of abstract thinking about hypothetical situations (Worsham & Ward, 2013). This is the highest stage of cognitive development.

This is Piaget’s stage theory. Some parts of it have stood the test of time better than others: for example, it is now very well recognized that Piaget consistently underestimated the abilities of babies and children alike (Gartrell, 2014; Worsham & Ward, 2013). Still, his concept of the child as a “little scientist” who should be encouraged to learn through interactions with the world and with other people remains useful and applicable in many situations (Gartrell, 2014). As such, it should be considered as a part of the model here delineated. The limitations of Piaget’s stage theory are easily accounted for with an accurate understanding of the capabilities of babies and young children.

The work of Lev Vygotsky has also proven quite influential on education, and is of considerable theoretical interest for the child guidance approach. Vygotsky’s approach differed from Piaget’s, in that Vygotsky held to a form of guided development wherein the adult helped the child to learn things that would be difficult for the child to learn on their own. Vygotsky’s single most famous construct is the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which he defined in terms of the zone in which a child can learn with the aid and guidance of an adult or older/more accomplished child, but not on their own (Gartrell, 2014; Worsham & Ward, 2013). This has gone on to become a very influential idea indeed. If the teacher or parent can identify tasks that are difficult for the child, but which the child could learn handily enough if only someone were to teach or show them some new skill or insight, then they can promote learning within the child’s zone of proximal development (Gartrell, 2014; Worsham & Ward, 2013). This can promote the greatest amount of learning.

Characteristics of the Model Here Delineated

Building off of the insights of Piaget and Vygotsky in particular, as well as Adler and Dreikurs, the model here proposed is one that aims to promote learning in the zone of proximal development. The central idea is that with the right guidance and support from the teacher, the students will be motivated, confident, and have the necessary support to want to participate in their school work. Learning will be fun, not a chore: they will complete tasks and learn new things because it is enjoyable and they are being encouraged, not because these things are tasks they must complete for a mark.

The model also aims to promote good citizenship behaviors and a good view of self. Indeed, the two are integrally related: a good view of self is bound up with a view of one’s self as the type of person who practices good citizenship behaviors. Helping children understand their behaviors, what they want, and how to get it—and how not to get it—are important. Children need to see that it is not acceptable to hurt others or throw tantrums, and they need to understand why: these things are hurtful, these things are inconsiderate, these things are flat out not the best ways for them to get what they want from others or out of life, for that matter.

The model includes corrective actions, but the correction is not punitive. Instead, the goal of correction is to get children to see why what they did was wrong, and how they can go about doing better in future. It includes things like having them apologize to others for hurtful behavior, and taking responsibility when they do things like color with crayon on the walls. By so doing, the teacher can teach the children that some things are not acceptable without crushing the children’s spirits through stress and fear. This approach teaches children that there is such a thing as right and wrong, and to practice the right rather than the wrong, but does so in a much more supportive and positive way. The practical results of this approach are children who have high self-esteem, care about others and practice good citizenship behaviors, and legitimately love learning and excel at it.

The Prepared Environment

The environment must be designed with the needs of its participants in mind. Thomas (1995) recommends planning ahead and arranging all aspects of the room accordingly. The position of tables, children’s cubbies—very important for kindergarten—the teacher’s desk, and the rug area must all facilitate traffic flow. Toy shelves, book shelves, bulletin boards and the like should all be at the edges, again to facilitate the best uses of space. A bulletin board is a particularly important part of the classroom, since it is used to display pertinent information for schoolwork, as well as things like a calendar, a weather chart, the class rules, and the like (Thomas, 1995). Every day, before the children arrive, the teacher can set out things like books and puzzles, which the children can play with in the first ten-to-fifteen minutes of class, as they are getting settled in (Jacobs & Crowley, 2010). This facilitates settling in to the school day, helping the children to be ready.

Developmental Issues

Kindergarteners are at a stage in their development, which can roughly be categorized as the age 5-8 bracket, wherein they are learning a great many new things and exercising many new capabilities. Young children of this age bracket have a number of developmentally specific concerns, concerns that must be addressed with very specific aspects of the child guidance classroom plan. Thus, where preschoolers ask very simple, very concrete questions about how the world works, early school-agers, including kindergarteners, want deeper answers (Miller, 2010). They want to know why the world works as it does. They are also less gullible than preschoolers, and much more capable of spotting any inconsistency in the behavior of their parents or their teachers. For example: “’You said that nobody could eat or drink unless they sat down at the table. You’re somebody and you’re drinking coffee’” (Miller, 2010, p. 63). Adults must be more prepared to answer them.

This mentality has many, many ramifications for how kindergarteners behave in the classroom. One ramification is obvious: a kindergarten teacher must be prepared to field questions, not only to satisfy the students’ curiosity, but as a way of promoting learning (Miller, 2010). It is important for the teacher to provide materials and activities that help students learn more about their world and what they are capable of doing. By following this approach, the teacher can help their students to learn many more things about themselves and their world, and make the educational experience that much richer and more worthwhile.

Another aspect of kindergarteners’ development is their need to win. It is very common for children in the 5-8 bracket to become angry if they do not win at some competition. This is part and parcel of the cognitive and emotional development that makes them want to know the why of things: they are more assertive, more tenacious, and more expressive (Miller, 2010). Thus, while it is acceptable in some situations for the teacher to allow or even encourage competition, the teacher must be careful not to encourage too much competition, because for children of this age it is very easy for that to deteriorate into anger and hurt feelings. Collaboration is an especially important thing for children of this age group to learn, and activities that promote it and are fun will go a very long way (Miller, 2010). By promoting collaboration, the teacher can produce a happier classroom.

Learning collaboration is all the more important in view of certain developmental behavioral challenges that manifest in young children of this age, such as their tendencies tocall each other names and say other hurtful things (Miller, 2010). They are much more expressive than preschoolers, and their emotions are developing in complexity as well. It is easy for them to retaliate when they feel hurt, excluded, belittled, or picked on in any way, and for some children the definitions of those things are very fluid, and may extend to not getting their way with regard to something. What teachers need to do, then, is to be prepared to actually sit down and talk with their kindergarten students when they are misbehaving. Kindergarteners are not as easy to pick up or physically restrain as preschoolers: they are larger and faster, making it harder for a surprising number of adults to restrain them with ease. It is therefore necessary to teach them self-control and proper ways of handling things (Miller, 2010). This will greatly facilitate the task of behavior modification.

Modeling and Inculcating Proper Behavior           

Regarding behavior modification, there is a remarkably sound case against the traditional, more authoritarian forms of discipline. As Snyder, Cramer, Afrank, and Patterson (2005) found, disruptive and aggressive behaviors of young children in the classroom can be predicted to a considerable degree by parents’ hostile attributions regarding their behavior, and certain disciplinary practices. In essence, parents who practiced forms of discipline that were irritable and did not really attend to the underlying causes of their child’s behavior, and who tended to consistently make hostile attributions to explain the conduct of their children, were the parents with the least well-behaved children (Snyder et al., 2005). The parents who believed the worst of their children, then, had the children who behaved the worst.

The child guidance approach breaks with the more traditional, authoritarian ‘obedience’ model of punishments for misbehavior, championing instead the idea that there are better ways to instill proper behavior and discourage misbehavior. One of the most important ways to do this is unquestionably to start by modeling positive, pro-social behavior for the classroom. Teachers who model such behavior teach their students about relationships: the best ways in which to treat people, why it is important to respect the feelings and the needs of others, how to communicate one’s own needs in an appropriate manner, and so on (Alexander, 2012). This provides better ways of communicating one’s needs and getting results.

A successful teacher can guide children’s behavior by teaching them these things. In particular, it is important for a teacher to help children by walking them through ways to solve problems, including problems they may be having with their peers, with the lesson, or with the teacher (Alexander, 2012). It is also important for teachers to teach students to develop self-control and self-discipline. Teachers who do these things are equipping their students with the tools the students need to conduct themselves in an appropriate manner, which will make for much better and far more fulfilling lives (Alexander, 2012). These are valuable life lessons for students to internalize at a young age.

Another way to think of this is in terms of teaching responsibility. The teacher who teaches responsibility is the teacher who teaches students that actions have consequences, and they need to respect the rules and each other. However, the teacher should also teach them about participation and interdependence: by teaching values of equality, dignity, and self-worth, the teacher can inculcate in students the idea that everyone matters, and everyone should be accepted and treated well (Queen & Algozzine, 2010). All of this should take place in an environment that is safe, supportive, and emotionally warm, rather than motivating children to obedience out of fear. The thing to do is teach children that there are consequences for misbehavior, though not pain-inducing fearful ones. The consequences should not be harshly punitive, but rather consist of helping the child to realize that they did wrong, why it was wrong, and what they should do instead (Queen & Algozzine, 2010). On the other hand, it is also necessary to teach them that they have a great deal to gain by behaving well, thereby incentivizing them to do so. This approach is, beyond doubt, far more conducive to learning.

One specific practice that teachers can use is that of promoting reflective practice and self-evaluation (McFarland, Saunders, & Allen, 2009). In teaching students these practices, teachers help them to ascertain how they can better manage their behavior. Self-evaluation and reflection enable students to really think about how they come across to others. While kindergarten students are quite young for deeper, philosophical queries, they are still perfectly capable of thinking about other people and about right and wrong, etc. Teachers can help them by encouraging them to think about how they like to be treated, and how they would feel if someone was ‘mean’ to them, etc. By encouraging students to really think on their behaviors, their desires, and how other people respond to them, teachers can help students to become more well-behaved. Students who develop the habit of thinking about their actions from a young age are likely to have a great start on life.

Positive Reinforcement and Correction

In fact, it is not necessarily all that difficult to teach children proper behaviors without more traditional approaches to discipline. All that is needed is to model the positive behaviors, discourage and (gently but firmly) correct the negative behaviors, and reinforce the positive behaviors when the students display them. Wheatley et al (2009) studied the use of such a system in the lunchroom, a Praise Note system. The idea was to reduce three targeted behaviors: littering in the lunchroom, sitting inappropriately, and running in the lunchroom. The strategy used was differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI), a strategy that calls for a target behavior to be defined, and then a desired behavior to be juxtaposed with it. For example, the behavior of sitting inappropriately was one of the ones targeted. The alternative, which was reinforced, was sitting appropriately. The reinforcers were Praise Notes, given for good behavior. The desired behaviors were modeled in group sessions, with walking relays to help students learn how to walk, not run, and a trash relay to encourage putting litter where it belonged. By providing a positive, fun, supportive context and a token reinforcer for good behavior, the school was able to dramatically decrease littering, running in the lunchroom, and sitting inappropriately (Wheatley et al., 2009). The school successfully molded the children’s behavior.

It is true that children will inevitably misbehave some of the time. The child guidance approach, however, for an alternative to anger or corporal punishment. As Miller (2010) explains, teachers can be firm without being angry. If a child does something inappropriate, something appropriate should be substituted: the teacher should explain to the child that their behavior was inappropriate, and walk them through an appropriate substitute behavior. If a child hurts someone else or says something inappropriate, they need to be interrupted, taken aside, and corrected. They need to have it explained to them why what they did was wrong, and they need to then apologize to the person they have hurt. They can then be corrected in a positive way (Miller, 2010). Positive correction is more productive.

Miller (2010) explains that one can explain to a child that what they did was thoughtless, cruel, unkind, etc. without making it about the child themselves. In other words, the child is not a ‘bad child’: they did something inappropriate/bad, but they themselves are not a ‘bad child’. They can also be taught that actions have consequences. Taking an example given by Miller (2010), let us say that little Elroy draws on the classroom walls with his crayon. He knows he is not to do this. Should he merely receive a talking-to? Of course not: he should be made to scrub the crayon marks off the walls, and the crayons should be taken from him. This is an effective way to correct behavior without authoritarian discipline.

Motivation

Positivity is also key in motivating children. After all, much of the teacher’s job is to motivate children to participate in classroom activities and the lessons given. The central task for the teacher is to encourage students to be motivated: to inculcate in them a love of learning, a love of going to school. Here, self-belief is key: does the child believe they are able to perform the task? Do they believe that it is worthwhile to them? By encouraging students and providing a diverse assortment of ways for them to learn, the successful teacher will facilitate motivation in this vein (Martin, 2010). Valuing school is the second thing Martin recommends. For kindergarten, teachers can make learning fun by integrating play with learning, as seen. This can help young children to value school, and to legitimately have fun while learning. With time, students can be taught to focus on learning (Martin, 2010). Learning is valuable for its own sake, though kindergarteners are likely to view it in more immediate, and simpler, terms: what they get out of the experience. By making it engaging and fun, the teacher can facilitate the acquisition of the kind of disposition that will ultimately help the student to truly love learning for its own sake. This is a lifelong gift, one that will reap many rewards.

Another aspect of this is teaching persistence. The guidance approach is good for this, because it has such a focus on supportive behavior and mentalities (Martin, 2010). By supporting all of the students and teaching them to help each other, work together, and not give up, the teacher can help them to learn persistence in the completion of a task. Granted, the amount of persistence kindergarteners can realistically be expected to learn is rather limited, but they are still fully capable of beginning to learn some persistence. For kindergarteners one has to have realistic expectations, but they are still capable of learning how to think about what they are doing, and how to exercise restraint while they are doing it (Martin, 2010). This will help them to be persistent and patient.

Teacher support is critical for motivation. While it is true that some children will enjoy an activity even if they are not particularly good at it and even if they receive little in the way of support from adults, it is also true that many children will find such lack of support frustrating, and it will impede their ability to enjoy the activity (Patrick et al., 2008). In order to ensure that the greatest number of children enjoy the activity and actually have a good chance of learning, it is crucial that the teacher make themselves available to the children, so that they can help them if they get stuck. The better the relationship with the teacher, the more likely the student is to succeed in a given activity, enjoy that activity, and be motivated in school more generally (Patrick et al., 2008). This is how to cultivate teacher support.

Giving children choices, too, is another very clear way to increase motivation. As Jacobs and Crowley (2010) explain, offering kindergarteners choices is a very good way to motivate them. They give a particularly outstanding example of how a teacher can do precisely this: have a designated time wherein children may pursue their interests. In this designated “interest time”, children can be allowed their choice of computer games, books, blocks, and dramatic play—and anything else. By giving them this choice, the teacher can make the whole day a much more manageable proposition for them, particularly given the usually quite short attention spans of young children. The materials in question can also all be educational, so the children can legitimately learn as they play (Jacobs & Crowley, 2010). Combining learning with playing is a good way to increase motivation.

Conclusion

The deficits of the disciplinarian model are painfully obvious: as seen, it damages self-esteem and teaches compliance on the basis of fear. On the other hand, the child guidance approach is a positive, supportive approach, one designed to teach young people to love learning, other people, and themselves. The fundamental difference is that the child guidance approach recognizes the need for emotional support and self-esteem, and that there are better ways to correct children’s behavior than punitive sanctions. This produces students who are happy and well-behaved, rather than cowed and reduced to obedience out of fear. The success of the model as described rests fundamentally with the teacher. The teacher must model good behavior to the students, demonstrating what it means to be patient, kind, and supportive of others. If the teacher does not do this, the students will learn bad behavior. Only if the teacher is patient and supportive of students will the students learn in accordance with the model. By modeling good behavior, the teacher is telling the students Look at what I do, not only what I say. This gives the teacher credibility with the students: it can help the teacher to win their respect and their trust, and can facilitate the process of promoting good behavior tremendously.

Instead of punishment, the positive child guidance approach promotes helping children to understand what they did wrong, and why, in a format that does not attaint them. In other words, the negative action is addressed without attacking the child. This is absolutely vital if the child is to respond in a way that is not based on fear. This can also lead to good citizenship behaviors based on high self-esteem and genuine appreciation of others. And, too, the model promotes good behaviors, and reinforces these. Even a token reinforcer, or praise, can be plenty. And by providing such a supportive environment, the teacher will facilitate the success of all of the students to the greatest possible degree.

References

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McFarland, L., Saunders, R., & Allen, S. (2009). Reflective practice and self-evaluation in learning positive guidance: Experiences of early childhood practicum students. Early Childhood Education Journal, 36, pp. 505-511.

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Queen, J.A., & Algozzine, R. (2010). Responsible classroom management, grades K-5: A schoolwide plan. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Snyder, J., Cramer, A., Afrank, J., & Patterson, G.R. (2005). The contributions of ineffective discipline and parental hostile attributions of child misbehavior to the development of conduct problems at home and school. Developmental Psychology, 41(1), pp. 30-41

Thomas, R. (1995). How to manage your kindergarten classroom. New York: Teacher Created Resources.

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Worsham, D., & Ward, M.A. (2013). Student guidance & development. New York: Routledge.