A Non-Clinician’s Contribution to Clinical Psychology, Research Paper Example

Abstract

This research paper will explore the biography of Dr. Albert Bandura and his primary contribution to the field of psychology.  The social learning theory will be explored from the perspective of the bobo doll experiment.  The implications of Dr. Bandura’s research will be explored with regards to counselling and social work, advertising, abnormal psychology, human resources, education, internships and human resources.  The study of the learning of gender directed behavior will also be explored in this research paper.

A Non- Clinician’s Contribution to Clinical Psychology

Dr. Albert Bandura was born in Mundare, Canada on December 4, 1925. Dr. Bandura received his early education in a modest school. The University of British Columbia  conferred Dr. Bandura his Bachelor’s degree in Psychology. Dr. Bandura conducted his graduate studies at the University of Iowa and was conferred his PhD in 1952. Dr. Bandura received the influences from the behaviorists and the learning theories while he was completing his graduate studies at the University of Iowa. Consequently, Dr. Bandura was able to produce his concepts of observational learning and modelling in addition to his social learning theory. Dr. Bandura became one of the most distinguishedpsychologistsof the twentiethcentury with his contributions to the field of behaviorism.  Dr. Bandura’s social learning theory is a behaviorist theory as a result of its focus on theelements of learning. These elements of learning are motivation, attention and memory (Baron, 1988).

Main Contribution

Behaviorism is the perspective that perceives that only activity that can be observed and replicated with scientific observation can be included in the field of psychology. The behaviorist perspective is that internal occurrences that includefeelings, images and thoughts cannot be measured by the scientific method and should not be considered as a component of behavioral psychology. The experimental and scientific methods that are applied for the measurement and the observation of activities. The scientific method is composed of formulating theories with regards to the explanation of diverse processes and events. The theories are able to be implemented in the creating of forecasts or hypotheses that can be confirmed by additional observation and research. The theories receive acceptance in the event that the new observations are in alignment with the theory. The experimental method is a clinical research method that involves the manipulation of one or more variables. These variables are manipulated in order to determine the effects that they may exert on another variable. This is the review of the independentvariable in comparison to the dependent variable. In conclusion, behaviorism states that the environment is the causal attribute of behavior (Bandura et al., 1961; Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995).

Dr. Bandura discovered that these theories were true. His contribution was that the behavior is a causal attribute of the environment. In the debate of whether the individual  or the circumstance is the most responsible for behavioral outcomes, it can be said that an individual’sbehavior is founded upon assessments of the situation. The new behaviorhasthe capacity of changing the situation.  In turn the new situation requires a new assessment and a new behavioral decision. The main points of this evaluation are that primarily, it is not easy to separate the influence of the behavior of the individual and the situation. The second point is that an individual’s proprietary behavior is a contributing factor to the situation. The new situation influences the behavior. This theoretical perspective demonstrates more interest in the manner by which the individual influencesbehavior(Bandura et al., 1961; Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995).

Dr. Banduradebates that the personality can best be conceived as a collection of internal interpretation and evaluating processes. These are detailed as the social person variables. These social person variables have the capacity of mediating the individual’sinteraction with the external environment, including the application of the individual’s proprietary thoughts and feelings. These social person variables include expectancies, personal constructs, encoding techniques, subjective values, self- regulating plans and systems, self- efficacy and competency. It is important to understand the social learning theory involves inter- reliantprocesses. The modifications in one of the social person variables may have an influence on the other social person variables (Bandura et al., 1961; Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995).

Behaviorism possessed extreme importance in Dr. Bandura’s theories in that its deficiencies became the foundation of his research. Dr. Bandura perceived that the complicated behaviors are influenced by the factors of behavior, actions, influence perception, internal events and the environment. Starting fifty years ago, behaviorism has produced the cognitiverevolution. Dr. Bandura is an integral part of this new perspective. Cognitive psychology holds the clinically directed orientation of behaviorism. The researchers are no longer restrained to the review of the external behaviors (Bandura et al., 1961; Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995).

Dr. Bandura began to perceivepersonality as being part of the interaction with the environment, the individual’s cognitive processes and behavior. Dr. Bandura aggregates language and imagery in order to effectively theorize with regards to two of the elements that are considered to be the primary components of the human psychological and cognitive process. These elements are self-regulation and observational learning. The bobo dollstudies are the most prominent of the studies that have been conducted by Dr. Bandura. . The bobo doll was an inflatable toy clown that possessed a weight at its base.  The weight that was positioned at its base caused the bob doll to return to an upright position when it was assaulted.  Dr. Bandura produced a video in which an adult behavioral model would aggressively assault theinflatable toy clown while yelling at it. The model assaulted the bob doll with her feet by kicking it, assaulted the bobo doll with a hammer and continued to yell aggressive words at the toy inflatable clown.  Dr. Bandura demonstrated his video to a collection of kindergarten children.  Subsequently, the kindergarten children were isolated in a room with a new inflatable toy clown and a collection of small hammers (Bandura et al., 1961; Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995).

As forecasted, 88% of the kindergarten children who were isolated in the room with the inflatable toy clown and the small hammers imitated the actions of the behavioral model that they observed on the video. The behavior of the children imitating the behavioral model that they witnessed on video does not appear to be out of the ordinary for the average observer. At the time, the children’s behavior did not coincide with the behavioral learning theories.  The children modified their behavior in the absence of any positivereinforcements.  Dr. Bandura detailed this behavior as the modelling or observational educational processes (Bandura et al., 1961; Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Brewer, 2004).

Dr. Bandura continued his research on observational educational processes and modelling while applying severalvariations. In some of the variations on the original bobo doll experiment, the behavioral model that was depicted on video was provided with an overtnegativeor positive reinforcement for her behaver.  In other variations on the original bob doll experiment, the kindergarten children were provided with positive reinforcement for their mimicry of the behavior of the behavioral model that had been demonstrated on the video. The behavioralmodel was exchanged for a less attractive behavioral model.  Dr. Bandura also demonstrated a video of the behavioral model that was depicted on video assaulted a live person that was disguised in a clown’s costume.  As the children were given their opportunity for recreational time, a person who was dressed as a clown was presented to them in the same environment as small hammers.  The children proceeded to assault the person who was dressed as a clown (Bandura et al., 1961; Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995).

The variations of the original bobo dollexperiment enabled Dr. Bandura to determine that there were particularsteps in the behavioral processes. These steps were detailed in a four step matrix

1. Attention- In the event that any additional education is to be acquired, the respondents must be paying attention. Any stimulus that is applied in order to detract from the attention span of the respondent will causes a reduction in the learning process.This theory is also applicable to observational education.
2. Retention- The respondentsmust be able to retain what was learned in the first step. The respondents’memories store the observed behaviorthat has been executed by the behavioral model in the form of verbal descriptions or mental imagery.  The memories that are stored can be retrieved in order to reproduce the behavior that had been observed.
3. Reproduction- the descriptions and the memories that have been observed must be able to be interpreted and applied toward the behavior of the respondent. The capacity of imitatingbehavioris enhanced by practice.  In addition, the capacities of the respondents to mimic the behaviors are enhanced with the imagining of the behavior.
4. Motivation- In the consideration of all of these factors, the respondents are not going to do anything in the absence of motivation. Bandura describes a number of motivational reasons.  These reasons are previous reinforcement (traditional behaviorism), anticipated rewards in addition to vicarious reinforcement.  Vicarious reinforcement involves seeing the behavioral model receiving a reward or punishment for the behavior that was exhibited.  In addition, there are negative reinforcements that include previous punishment and anticipated punishment that provide the respondent’s with motivations not to imitate the observed behavior (Bandura et al., 1961; Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995).The theory of observational learning and modelling was Dr. Bandura’sgreatest contribution to the field of psychology.

Ways Social Learning Theory Helps the Professional Psychology Practitioner

Social learning theory can be applied in practical ways in the learning environments.  In the scholasticcurriculum, the children must have the opportunity of being able to observe and model the behavior that derives positive reinforcement.  The educational professional must be able to motivate collaborative learning.  There is a great deal of learning that takes place in the environmental and social contexts.  A behavior that has been learned cannot be conducted in the absence of the correctenvironment.  The educational professional must be able to provide the motivations and the supportive setting for learning to take place (Bandura et al., 1961; Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995).

Counseling Applications

The social learning theory can be applied by psychological professionals today in order to assists the clients in being able to overcome anxieties. These anxieties may take the forms of business motivation, test anxiety and fear of medical treatment. In the business environment, the professionalpsychologist may be able to apply techniques that are in alignment with social learningtheories that include internships, job training, apprenticeships and mentoring. These are roles where the social learning theories that were proposed by Dr. Bandurahave real worldapplications.  Each of these examples incorporates a social setting where the new learner model is the more experienced co-workers and instructors(Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Stajkovic & Luthers, 1998).

One of the most commonly found applications of social learning theory is applied in advertising television commercials. The commercials recommended that the ingestion of a particular beverage or the use of a particular skin soap will cause the viewer to be able to imitate the model. The models that are advertised in commercials are usually attractive,popular and worry free. Reliant on the component processes that are being engaged, whether is it is motivation or attention, the behavior of the viewer may be models that can be imitated in order to encourage the viewer to purchase the product that is being advertised(Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Baron, 1988; Stajkovic&Luthers, 1998).

In learning a skill that includes driving a car, the learner only completes the cycle of learning that is proposed in social learning theory when the activity can be successfully exercised. The social cognitive theory includes postulations that an individual completes the cycle of observation, retention, reproduction and motivation when the learner has formulated a solution to the corresponding challenges. By means of social cognitive theory, the student will be able to identify their ability with regards to the completion of a challenging task (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Stajkovic&Luthers, 1998)..

The social cognitive learning theory supplies a system where the information that is conveyed by the instructor can be correctly applied and cos9istently used in problem solving.  Self – regulation enables a person to organize their reaction when addressing stimuli that is externally applied. In order for the behavioral adjustments to take place, the student must be able to receive the feedback from the instructors. In a learning environment, the feedback techniques are able to provide positive reinforcement for a behavior that causes it to cease if it is undesirable and continues if it is desirable.   Otherwise the provision of feedback is more intricate correlating to the improvement of the learner’s ability (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Stajkovic&Luthers, 1998)..

As the learner’s ability is enhanced, mastery of the activity is attained. In the circumstance of the problem being learning a new language skill, the student needs to be able to apply the new language skills and apply the linguistic conventions in order to acquire and convey proper speech. People reside in a socio culturally diverse environment that is distinct with regards to the shared principles, social practices and conventions. Notwithstanding, there is distinction in the specific categories of individualism.  In social cognitive theory the differences of the perception of social norms are compared with the individuals who are adapting. In addition, the affective mechanisms that are learned in a stimuli reaction setting are conducive to increasing self efficacy. Observational learning is enabled by adding the multimedia communication of culturally responsive models (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Stajkovic&Luthers, 1998)..

In the field of counseling, it is important to be able to relate to the culture of the clients. The appreciation and understanding of the client’s culture creates harmony in the counseling setting. Social cognitive theory has the capacity of reducing the number of social problems that are encountered in a counseling setting. The diversity of cultural perspectives that is expressed between the therapist and the clients cause the interaction to evolve into dynamic social systems. The intercultural distinctions and the intra individual differences in the psychological orientation of the clients’ cognitive abilities depict the characteristic of cultural dynamism (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Stajkovic&Luthers, 1998)..

The hypotheses propose that individuals learn from other individuals who possess mutual traits.  Consequently, the theory of cultural dynamism has the objective of forming human behavior in a beneficial manner. In social cognitive theory, the children in a scholastic setting learn the undesirable and the desirable morals and social behaviors by observing the behaviors of the members of diverse ethnic groups. The contextualization and the laxity facilitate the formation of the individual’s behavior in conformity to models that are socially acceptable. The filtering and the imitation of specific ethnic groups are important to the encouragement of good morals in social settings (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Stajkovic&Luthers, 1998)..

Social cognitive theory proposes that an individual that has a resilient characteristic of self efficacy and is enabled by the counsellor with a robust sense of social purpose will perceive the need to place their self interests in a secondary position with regards to the interests of society and its members.  In a family setting, the parents of children who have been raised in a new environment that is deficient in resources will convey a perception of resilient self efficacy in order to avoid having their child’s future dictated by circumstances that are less than favourable. Social cognitive theory helps people in a practical manner because it facilitates their ability to overcome being besieged by the application of the observation, retention, replication and motivation model (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Stajkovic&Luthers, 1998)..

In order to encourage a student to apply a collection of desired conducts, the student must become familiar with the skills of performing the activity.  In education, modeling is one of the most significant requisites.  Modeling provides the alternative manners of instructing and shaping novel concepts. The characteristic of operant conditioning applies unreliable shaping techniques. Social cognitive theory provides results at a more rapid and more efficient pace with regards to the acquisition of new behavior.  The instructors should ensure that the elements of attention, observation, retention, actual reproduction and motivation are present in the learning environment.  The self regulation matrixes often provide an effective manner of enhancing student’s behavior. The conducts that are acceptable that include nurturing do not only have the requisite of the skills of observation, retention, actual reproduction and motivation. Nurturing requires communication skills(Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Stajkovic&Luthers, 1998).

The social cognitive theory can be applied to the fields of health communications due to its ability of addressing the behavioral, cognitive and affective characteristics in comprehending the behavioral transformation processes. The concepts and the principles of social cognitive theory supply techniques that are innovative with regards to the investigation of behavior modification in health education.  The patients may formulate questions that are able to convey their discomfort to the health care practitioners.  In addition, doctors apply the self efficacy concepts of social cognitive theory in providing assistance to patients that need to change undesired behavior. This is achieved by the application of internal controls.  In the medical health care reports, the theory proposes that patients are more apt to receive information from others who are in a similar medical or psychological condition. This enables the patient to apply internal controls in order to reduce the discomfort(Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Stajkovic&Luthers, 1998)..

Researchers have also detailed that gender role production and moral development as being significantareas of research with regardsto social learning theory. Dr. Bandura theorized that the observed behavior is an important concept in the study of gendered role production. In the circumstance of same sex parents, the children are able to model their behavior upon the gender roles of the same sex parents. Gender production is reliant upon the influences of a number of social factors. These social factors are engaged at the individual level. Individuals; learn to distinguishgenderbehaviors from infancy.  The social context and the motivational factors have substantialinfluenceover gender related behaviors (Bussey & Bandura, 1999).

School Psychology

There are a number of classroom setting that are providing teaching techniques that are based on social learning theory.  Social learning theory may be applied in order to enhance the acquisition of language skill and the retention of the language skills that have been learned. In the practice of guided instruction, the teacher may state a phrase and ask the class to repeat what they have observed and heard.  Consequently, the students are able to mimic the teacher’s activity that serves as an aid for retention.  A derivative of guided instruction is reciprocal instruction. In reciprocal instruction, the teachers and the student have mutual responsibility in directing the focus of attention. Furthermore,the teachers have the capacity of shaping the student’s behaviors by serving as models for socially appropriatebehavior and providing positive reinforcement to the students who exercise the desired behavior (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1978a; Bandura. 1986; Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1995; Stajkovic & Luthers, 1998).

Conclusion

Dr. Bandura’s social learning theory is one of the basis for instruction that is applied today. Professionals in the fields that range from baking to psychologicalassessment areencouraged to apply Dr. Bandura’s social learning theory and his theories of positive and negative reinforcement. Social learning theories have been applied in order to explain the emerging and the maintaining of aggressive behavior in individuals. In addition, the televised rating system is based on social learning theory, Programs that are rated R or X are prohibit for the viewing of young children in order to deter the observational learning and modelling of the behaviors that are exercised in these programs. Social learning theory is the legacy that Dr. Bandura has provided for the present and future generations.

References

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Bandura, A. (1994). Self- efficacy. In V.S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior(Vol. 4. pp. 71- 81). New York: Academic Press.

Bandura, A. (1995). Self-efficacy in changing societies.New York: Cambridge University Press.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self- efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84: 191- 215.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice – Hall

Bandura, A., Ross, D. and S. Ross. (1961). Transmission of aggression through limitation o of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63: 575- 582.

Baron, R. A. (1988). Psychology (4^th edition). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Brewer, K. (2004). What really happened- The bobo doll experiments. Psychology Information for Students No. 1.

Bussey, K. and Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and d differentiation. Psychology Review, 106: 676- 713.

Stajkovic, A. D. & Luthens, F. (1998). Self- efficacy and work related performances: A meta- analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 124: 240- 261.