Adult Eating and Hunger Motivational Theories, Research Paper Example

Examining motivational theories related to hunger and eating requires an understanding of the difference between the two.  While obviously related, hunger and eating are separate phenomenon thus are driven by different sets of motivational theories.  Hunger is an innate physiological occurrence in response to the body’s need for sustenance.  Eating is a behavioral activity that is sometimes a response to hunger and sometimes not.  This paper will examine various behavioral theories relating to both.

Hunger

There are a number of differing theories regarding the biological impetus of hunger.  In his article, Takakao (1997) describes four independent theories relating to the physiological causes of hunger.  These theories were strictly driven by biological factors and did not account for any psychological variables.

The first and oldest theory was one developed by Cannon and Washburn in 1992.  This correlational theory contended that stomach contractions caused by the lack of substance within it caused hunger pangs.  The experiment involved Cannon inflating a balloon in Washburn’s stomach resulting in a feeling of satiety.  This theory was dismissed in later years when doctors realized that post-surgical gastrectomy patients felt sensations of hunger.

The second theory cited by Takakao asserted that low glucose levels in the bloodstream resulted in feelings of hunger.  This experiment involved a total blood transfusion between a satiated dog and a starving one.  When the starving dog received the blood from the satiated one, its stomach stopped contracting even though no food was concurrently provided.

The other theories contended that insulin levels, fatty acid levels or ambient temperature cause feelings of hunger.

There are many other theories regarding hunger that are based on physiological or biochemical drivers.  Whatever the impetus, people who do not eat get hungry.  Hunger is natural, normal and a necessary phenomenon for bodies that require food.  The action response that is usually prompted by hunger is eating.  There is however one behavioral theory that accounts for other action responses that can result from hunger.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs

Maslow pioneered a concept in human motivational theory by asserting that people have a hierarchical structure of needs which he illustrated using a pyramid.  At the bottom of the pyramid is the fundamental need for physiological necessities.  Food falls into this category.  The next level is safety, followed by love/belonging, esteem, and ultimately self-actualization.  The lower four strata in the pyramid are called “deficiency needs.”  The most powerful deficiency needs are physiological.  Without the basic physiological needs for food, water and air being met, the body simply cannot exist.

Based on Maslow’s model, a person will sacrifice higher needs until the lower ones are met.  In his article, Trigg (2004) quotes Maslow as having written; ‘‘For the man who is extremely and dangerously hungry, no other interest exists but food.  He dreams of food, he remembers food, and he wants only food.’’ (Trigg, 2004, p 304).

The fact that hunger is such a fundamental human need also makes it a powerful motivator.  Hunger can motivate a person to behave in ways that might otherwise be out of the question.  A starving prisoner of war for example might become willing to divulge intelligence information in order to satisfy his hunger.  Perhaps the most notorious example of this principle is the Donner incident.

Stranded for the winter in a Sierra Nevada pass, 87 pioneers en route to California in 1846 resorted to cannibalism when their supplies ran out and there was no other source of food.  Even though those left alive only ate the flesh of those who had already died, this behavior required the sacrifice of self and mutual esteem and belonging (which demands conformance with socially appropriate behavior).  This example shows that while hunger has a physiological base, it can strongly affect behavior.

Eating

Eating is a natural, healthy response to hunger.  Satisfying the body’s food deficiency need requires the consumption of food.  There are numerous psychological factors that motivate adults to consume certain types of foods over others as well as the frequency and quality of food intake.

Food Aversion

One of the most basic behavioral motivators involves the pursuit of pleasurable experiences and the avoidance of unpleasant ones.  Food aversion occurs when a particular food item becomes associated with something unpleasant.  Based on that association, a person will tend to avoid that food in the future.

The most significant form of this behavior can be the result of illness-induced food aversion.  If for example, a person tries sushi for the first time and subsequently becomes nauseous or otherwise ill, that person is not likely to want to eat that food item in the future.  This phenomenon was explored in a study wherein rats were given certain foods laced with just enough poison or radiation to make them sick (Garcia & Koelling, 1966).  enoug(Garcia J Koelling R 1966 Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning)After having consumed the tainted food, the rats avoided that food in the future.  The same level of avoidance was not achieved when the rats were given a shock of other unpleasant stimuli not resulting in somatic malaise.

This phenomenon also occurs in humans but differs from traditional classical conditioning theories.  In classical conditioning, the immediacy of the stimulus in relationship to the behavior is paramount.  param(Logue A 19981022 Evolutionary theory and the psychology of eating)With illness-induced taste aversion, the illness or discomfort does not have to coincide directly with the food consumption.  According to Logue (1998) a person can become ill within a 24 hour period of having consumed a food, and still develop an aversion to the taste of that food.

It is not only a particular food that may be avoided as a result of illness-induced food avoidance, but an entire category of food.  Becoming sick for example, from eating salmon may precipitate an aversion to all fish since most fish share common smell and taste characteristics.

Taste and Optimal Arousal

Theories relating to arousal assert that every person has an “optimal” level of arousal.  When too low, a person will seek ways to increase it.  Then the arousal level is too high a person will take action to reduce it.  This phenomenon holds true for eating as well.  In a normal eater, eating is the action taken to reduce the high arousal level caused by hunger.  There are however, aberrant eating behaviors driven by low arousal states.

In their study, Chamberlain and Leon (1973) suggested flaws in the assumption that obese adults tend to remain so due to internal cues rather than external ones. The study involved a control group of individuals who had maintained a weight loss and a subject group of individuals who had regained after losing weight.

The study found that half of the subject group reported eating during times of low arousal states (particularly stemming from loneliness or boredom) whereas most of the control group reported eating in response to the high arousal state of hunger.  The subject group not only ate food in response to their low arousal state, but tended to be selective in choosing food types that would optimize the increase in their arousal state.  This demonstrated that taste played a more significant role in eating than satiation.

Chamberlain and Leon’s paper also referred to a 1971 study by Schachter that demonstrated differing levels of emotional arousal based on the taste of the food consumed.  Schachter’s subjects tended to eat less when only bland food such as dry crackers were available than when tasty foods were part of the fare.  The emotional “reward” from consuming tasty foods reinforced the behavior of eating to satisfy low arousal states.

These studies suggest that a cognitive-behavioral approach could be used to modify the behavior of some compulsive over-eaters by limiting food types to those that minimize emotional arousal.  The lack of a positive arousal when eating or snacking might eventually break the cycle previously reinforced by tasty food.

Set-Point Theory

Initially developed in 1982 by Bennett and Gurin, the Set-point Theory contends that the human body “knows” what its ideal weight should be and regulates the lateral hypothalamus to stimulate hunger, or the ventromedial hypothalamus suppress it accordingly.  The hypothalamus also regulates metabolic rate when at rest.  According to the set-point theory, each person has a static set-point and the body combines the regulation of metabolism and feelings of hunger in order to maintain the “ideal” weight.

Many doctors and researchers have come to discount this theory.  In his article,  Novick (2009) contends that the widespread increase in obesity is an indicator of the fallibility of this theory.  Based on several studies cited in his article, Novick suggests that changing environmental and behavioral choices (such as exercise) are more responsible for people’s weight than the internal regulator espoused in the set-point theory.

Eating Disorders

Motivational theories relating to eating can be divided into two categories including “normal” eating and “abnormal” eating.  Motivators of hunger and basic arousal are applicable to most normal eaters.  There are however a number of abnormal eating behaviors or disorders that may result from a different set of motivational factors.

Bulimia Nervosa

Bulimia nervosa is a condition characterized by a repetitive cycle of binge eating followed by pur(Harvey H Zieve D 2010224 Eating Disorders)/or the compulsive use of laxatives, enemas or drugs to expel unwanted weight.  In their report,  Harvey and Zieve (2010) describe a number of risk factors including age, gender and ethnicity.  The most significant risk factor however is the presence of a personality disorder such as borderline personality disorder, phobia, post-traumatic-stress-disorder, or clinical depression which ultimately comes to include obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

Harvey and Zieve point out that is it still unclear if eating disorders result from mental disorders or such as OCD or if the progressively ritualistic behaviors associated with bulimia lead to the onset of OCD.  In either case, the ultimate presence of OCD results in behavior that is driven by this condition.

Anorexia Nervosa

Commonly called anorexia, this condition is characterized by an extreme food aversion sometimes coupled with extreme exercise and often stimulants or other drugs.  The condition again involves an obsessive-compulsive disorder wherein the victim suffers from an exaggerated preoccupation with their body image.

People with anorexia are motivated by internal constructs rather than by the thoughts, opinions or observations of others.  In their efforts to “improve” their body image, many anorexics suffer with heart conditions, blood problems, bone loss and neurological issues.  The behaviors associated with anorexia are counterintuitive to the “goal” of self-improvement espoused by those who suffer with it.

Behavioral Theories in the Treatment of Eating Disorders

Notwithstanding medical and pharmaceutical interventions, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has been the cornerstone of treating eating disorders for some time.  CBT is a therapeutic model that uses a systematic, goal-oriented approach to changing dysfunctional thought processes and behaviors.  CBT relies heavily on verbal interaction between the patient and therapist and involves two components.  Patients learn facts about their problem as well as tools for recognizing counterproductive thinking and behaviors in light of those facts.

For people with eating disorders, the motivating factors involved with eating have become progressively abnormal.  The healthy habit of eating to satisfy the deficiency need of hunger has become replaced with compulsive urges to satisfy low arousal states or worse, to excessively avoid food in order to mitigate a skewed body image.

CBT seeks to return such victims to a more natural state where eating becomes an activity motivated by healthy hunger.  It can be facilitated in 1:1 sessions with a therapist or within a therapeutic group setting.  The latter has the added benefit of appealing to a victim’s belonging and esteem needs.  Victims can identify with each other and support each other’s progress.  A potential “down-side” to group therapy is that a participant may intentionally falsify self-reporting of negative behaviors in order to gather the acceptance of the group for having done well.  In essence, a person could lie in order to get their “belonging” need met.

The problem of inaccurate self-reporting is not only an issue in group settings, but is not uncommon with many people recovering from dysfunctional behaviors.comm(Huffman M Shiffman S Stone A 200804 Ecological Momentary Assessment)

In their paper, Hufford, Shiffman and Stone (2008) refer to this problem as “recall bias.”  This concept defines a phenomenon whereby a person does not err in self-reporting by overtly lying, but by inaccurately reporting reality because time has allowed the facts to become favorably skewed.  If for example, a man on a regimented diet was supposed to eat four ounces of meat at a meal and consumed a 12 ounce steak instead, he might begin to rationalize the behavior over time.  As he is eating, he knows he is eating too much.  In the time between the behavior and his next therapy session he might look back and think; “The bone was pretty large and I did cut off the visible fat.  My wife tasted a few bites.  All things considered, that steak was probably only 4 or 5 ounces.”

To combat recall bias, and increase the efficacy of CBT, Munsch et.al. (2008) conducted a study using ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to improve self-reporting and ultimately therapeutic success.  EMA involves the use of reporting tools such a journals or task charts to support more accurate self-reporting in real time and in real-world environments.  A person could still lie on their reporting tool, but would have to make a conscious decision to do so.  This approach eliminates the potential for sub-conscious recall bias.

The study involved the use of computer-based questionnaires that were to be completed five times per day.  An alarm notified participants when each survey was due. The survey included several simple questions like “Have you binged since your last report was filed?”  Surveys not completed within 30 minutes of the alarm were flagged.  The study results showed that 89% of the subjects followed the protocol in completing their surveys with the timeframes allowed.  The control group filled out traditional weekly surveys.

The ultimate results of the study indicated that subjects using the EMA system showed a 56% improvement in symptom reduction (binge eating) as opposed to a 30% reduction among the control group.

This study suggests that the immediacy of self-reporting can have a positive impact on modifying behavior.  This suggestion would certainly be consistent with classical conditioning theories.  The fact that a subject knows they will have to self-report throughout the day rather than once per week, also provides a deterrent against negative behavior because the consequence of the behavior (the shame associated with an honest report) is constantly imminent.

Summary

Motivational drivers of eating behavior can be categorized as normal and healthy or abnormal.  Unlike many kinds of behavior, the line between the two is not always clear.  Eating is an essential part of staying alive.  Other behaviors are not.  An alcoholic for example can live with drinking.  The line between positive and negative behavior is easy to measure.  An alcoholic either drinks or abstains.

A person cannot abstain from food.  People with eating disorders must identify the motivational factors driving their dysfunction and replace it with health motivators.  This is clear in the case of all serious eating disorders but perhaps a bit less obvious for those somewhere in the middle.

Obesity has become an ever-increasing problem in the last few decades.  Over-eating to increase a low arousal state may begin with short-term situational depression such as occurs when a person looses their job or gets a divorce.  In these cases, the motivation to eat to “fill an emotional emptiness” is not uncommon and probably not pathological.

For some, the habit of eating for emotional rather than physiological reasons can become a way of life.  For these individuals, habit can turn into compulsion.  As such a person gains weight, their body image is likely to become poor.  Poor body image leads to self-denigration and depression which prompts the need for increasing arousal through more eating.

This is a cycle suffered my many.  Some recognize the pattern and seek help to change their behavior.  For others, the pattern becomes deep-rooted to the point of becoming a full-fledged eating disorder.  These people can also recover but the road will be long.

References

(Chamberlain K Leon G 1973 Emotional arousal, eating patterns and body image as differential factors associated with varying success in maintaining a weight loss)Chamberlain, K., & Leon, G. (1973). Emotional arousal, eating patterns and body image as differential factors associated with varying success in maintaining a weight loss. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 40(3), 474-480. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&hid=106&sid=13f184c8-2ffd-4ade-af5b-ba766a78fced%40sessionmgr114

Garcia, J., & Koelling, R. (1966). Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 4(3), 123-124. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=WVzardat66YC&oi=fnd&pg=PA374&ots=i93KfsZ08r&sig=pwLYiKgxoQ5RnnsMdZtqaXCOnhI#v=onepage&q&f=falseh poison to make them ill.

Harvey, H., & Zieve, D. (2010, February 24). Eating Disorders. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=7&hid=113&sid=f9b344e8-c995-41ea-96a3-78dfb32751e1%40sessionmgr111ging and

(Heatherington M 2002 physiological–psychological dichotomy in the)Heatherington, M. (2002). The physiological–psychological dichotomy in the study of food intake. Cambridge Journal, 61(4), 497-507. doi:10.1079/PNS2002187

Huffman, M., Shiffman, S., & Stone, A. (2008, April). Ecological Momentary Assessment. Retrieved from http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091415?journalCode=clinpsyon in dealing with many types of people attempting to recover from dysfunctional behaviors.

Logue, A. (1998, October 22). Evolutionary theory and the psychology of eating. Retrieved from http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/faculty/LogueA.html#illnessount.

(Munsch S Meyer A Milenkovic N Schlup B Margraf J Wilhelm F 2009 Ecological momentary assessment to evaluate cognitive-behavioral treatment for binge eating disorder.)Munsch, S., Meyer, A., Milenkovic, N., Schlup, B., Margraf, J., & Wilhelm, F. (2009). Ecological momentary assessment to evaluate cognitive-behavioral treatment for binge eating disorder. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 42, D.O.I. 648657.10.1002/eat.20657

(Novick J 2009 Set point theory)Novick, J. (2009). Set point theory. Retrieved from the National Health Association website: http://www.healthscience.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=551:the-set-point-theory&catid=102:jeff-novicks-blog&Itemid=267

(Takakao H 1997 Hunger and eating)Takakao, H. (1997). Hunger and eating. Retrieved from the California State University-Northridge website: http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/students/hunger.htm

(Trigg B 2004 Deriving the Engel Curve: Pierre Bourdieu and the social critique of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs)Trigg, B. (2004). Deriving the Engel Curve: Pierre Bourdieu and the social critique of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Review of Social Economy, 44(3), 393-406. doi:10.1080/0034676042000253987