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Alternative Energy Resources, Research Paper Example

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Abstract

This work in writing examines the impact of EVs on the energy infrastructure and as well examines the needed changes and requirements to institute the use of EVs throughout the globe.

Role of Alternative Energy Resources in Reshaping Global Transportation Infrastructure: Focus on Electric Cars

Introduction

Electric vehicles were built first by Thomas Edison in 1913 however, it is reported that that internal combustion engine took over since gas was cheaper than electricity and as well, the electricity market is reported to have been fragmented. During the 1990s, there were many electric car projects underway and it is reported that all of them failed for various reasons including the following stated reasons: (1) no official EVSE inlet/connector standard; (20 inability to create universal pubic charging networks; (3) DC power fast charge limited to fleet trials; (4) gasoline relatively inexpensive; and (5) battery technology was not ready for prime time (lead acid, very heavy). (ABB, 2011)

Current Status of Technology

There are reasons posited as to why electric vehicles are ready for success in today’s market including the following stated reasons: (1) better battery technologies; (2) 2010: Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J1772 standard established (240V/32A) for standard car charger; (3) every car charger has adopted this standard which allows for universal level 1 and 2 EVSE infrastructure; (4) consumer demand for electric vehicles at an all-time high; (5) high gasoline prices; (6) national security and environmental considerations; (7) making the assumption that the cost of gas is $3.50 per gallon, at 25 mpg the electric vehicles cost will be 1/3 to 1/4 of the current gasoline cots to the owner and other ownership costs will be reduced including the fact that there will be no need for oil changes, transmission fluid, or even belts. (ABB, 2010) It is reported that the North American Standards for charging electric vehicles are set “except for fast charging. The DC fast charge standard is still undefined. The Japanese OEMS have all “adopted the CHAdeMO.” (ABB, 2010) Electric vehicles stated to be available in North American presently are the following electric vehicles: (1) Nissan Leaf; (2) GM Volt; (3) Ford Transit Connect; (4) Ford Focus Electric; (5) Mitsubishi i-MiEV; (6) Toyota Prius; (7) Daimler Smart; and (8) Toyota RAV4-EV. (ABB, 2010) Ten percent of vehicle production in the United States is targeted for electric vehicle production by 2020 and by 2015 China is reported to plan to be building more electric cars than the United States with vehicle production in China planned at 35% of all vehicle production by 2020. (ABB, 2010, paraphrased)

Types of Electric Vehicles

There are reported to be four types of electric vehicles including the: (1) Mild hybrid – stop/start; (2) Full hybrid – gas and electric (hybrid electric vehicle or HEV); (3) Plug-in hybrid – electrical powered/gas generator; and (4) Pure electric vehicle (battery electric vehicle or BEV) – electric powered only. (ABB, 2010) It is stated that the electric vehicle market “is expected to account for 3-4% of the fleet by 2020…and around 15% by 2030.” (ABB, 2010) It is reported that the “large scale roll out of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) will be hindered unless investors stimulate demand, lower the cost of public charging infrastructure, and manage the impact on the grid…” (The Smart Grid, 2011) In another report entitled “Charging the Game: Plug-in Electric Vehicle Pilots” an analysis was conducted on a range of electric vehicles trails worldwide with a focus on pure electric vehicles (EVs) that are entirely dependent on charging from the electric grid. Three challenges were identified in the report as follows:

Cost: The business case for investing in public charging infrastructure is weak due to high costs and initial consumer preferences for home charging. Pilots reveal a risk that consumers may not use public charging spots at rates required to recover costs, which range from approximately $5,000 per charging station to $50,000 for units capable of fast charging a car in approximately 30 minutes.
Control: Infrequent charging by consumers will limit the ability to control the impact of charging on power flows. Pilots show that PEVs meet the driving requirements of typical city users who may therefore not plug in their cars daily. This increases the unpredictability of charging and reduces control. Plugging in vehicles whenever parked will help grid management, easing the strain on the grid.
Scale: While most electrification technologies work in isolation, there are too few electric vehicles in pilot areas to robustly test the technologies and their integration with each other. Grid impact will thus need to continue to be closely monitored as the market develops. (The Smart Grid, 2011)

It is additionally reported that there are extensive implications of plug-in EVs for business models since they EVs require “changes in consumer behavior and can increase strain on the grid. It will be critical to improve understanding of consumer preferences and to change consumer behavior through creative incentives if utilities and service providers are to manage the impact on the grid.” (The Smart Grid, 2011)

Needs of Today’s Public Charging Infrastructure

It is reported that the public charging infrastructure model of today “is needed to drive initial large scale roll outs but carries high risks due to upfront costs, unpredictable charging patterns, and possibly limited demand.” (The Smart Grid, 2011) There is a stated need for commercial models, which are more profitable if a sustainable PEV market is to be developed. The specific needs stated are the following:

Private charging infrastructure which will include mechanisms, such as premium charging to manage demand and battery swapping services that reduce the strain on the grid.
The end-to-end model, where a single service provider will offer long term service contracts that remove the cost of the battery from the purchase price of the vehicle and include battery swapping as an option. (The Smart Grid, 2011)

It is reported that direct vehicle sales to consumers are being attempted by some manufacturers although the high battery cost results in this option being unaffordable for the majority of consumers unless there are large subsidies offered by the government. If this model is adopted by automotive manufacturers then required will be an investment in the ability to manage “a new service-based relationship with consumers.” (The Smart Grid, 2011) It is reported that some service providers “own and maintain the battery, leasing it through a subscription service whereby consumers pay for ‘miles’ driven” rather than paying for electricity. (The Smart Grid, 2011) The most important factor in the determination of whether this model will be successful is stated to be the consumer. (The Smart Grid, 2011, paraphrased) It is reported that standardization of technology is needed critically for providing support to the involvement of service providers, which is various in nature. (The Smart Grid, 2011, paraphrased)

Impact of EVs on Energy Infrastructure Planning

Schulze and Riveros (nd) write in the work entitled “Impact of Electrical Vehicles on Strategic Planning of Energy Infrastructure” a rising share of EVs in the public and private transportation sector “is going to add an unknown load to the grid, when being plugged for charging. If the individual mobility does not change at all high load peaks are estimated.” According to Schulze and Riveros the questions that arise when attempting to estimate future infrastructural needs as compared to the present infrastructure status include the question of “Do the combination of load changes from traditional sources (parameters like population, energy consumption per capita, etc.) and the new electric load of a maximum of 100% EVs overload the lines?” (Schulz and Riveros, nd) As well Schulze and Riveros question if new lines would help or if reinforcement is suitable” and whether when considering renewable electrical feed-in by solar or wind power, how the load curve looks.” (nd, paraphrased) Schulze states in the findings of the study reported that “vehicle hybridization and the number of EV in the market will rise, increasing at the same time the use of electric power in the transportation, additionally, is foreseen that hydrogen fuel cells vehicles will achieve a market share greater than 5% in OECD countries.” (Schulze and Riveros, nd) According to the findings of Schulze and Riveros “the future mobility will not rely on one specific technology but in several making the transportation sector more reliable and flexible.” (nd) The problems facing the energy infrastructure are reported by Prawdzik (2011) to include the need for a physical transmission and distribution infrastructure upgrade. It is agreed upon by many experts that what is needed is to pursue “what has become known as a ‘smart grid’ because the right improvements open the grid up to a number of other powerful improvements.” (Prawdzik, 2011) It is reported that the “economic benefits of creating a smart grid would be enormous.” (Prawdzik, 2011) Also reported is that there is a need to “ensure that future investments in power generation infrastructure work to achieve two major principles: (1) expanded use of renewable energy; and (2) decentralization of power generation. (Prawdzik, 2011) Prawdzik states that there is also a need to “aggressively promote efficient energy usage on the part of the consumer.” (Prawdzik, 2011)

Management of EV Charging

It is claimed in the work of Caramanis (2009) entitled “Management of Electric Vehicle Charging to Mitigate Renewable Energy Intermittency and Distribution Network Congestion” that EV battery charging “can be managed so as to both increase the supply of regulation service thus controlling its cost and mitigate distribution network congestion.” (Caramanis, 2009) The stated role of Energy Service Company (ESCo) or Coordination Service Provider is stated to include: (1) contracts with EV owners to manage charge EV batteries plugging in at several feeders; (2) access to local congestion constraints, namely the maximal additional load that may be applied along a specific feeder without stressing the transformer and other distribution hardware tolerances; (3) Smart interface – measures real-time energy needs and EV owner input (e.g., departure time); (4) Access to wind farm forecasts and wholesale market aggregate features that determine clearing prices in related (co-optimized or cocleared). (Caramanis, 2009) The conclusion stated is that results support the idea that “smart management of the charging of electric vehicles can: (1) Help with renewable generation intermittency; (2) Result in cost savings; (3) Be accomplished within congestion constraints; and (4) Synergies can be created and managed to remove barriers to widespread market penetration of EVs and Renewable generation. (Caramanis, 2009)

Global Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking

The Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) is reported to be implemented in the EU and to be supported by the EU member country governments. The FCH JU has as its objectives the development and promotion of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies in preparation for commercialization in 2015.” (IPHE Workshop Report, 2010) The total budget of the FEH JU includes an investment of “at least Euro 940 million to be made from 2008 to 2013 which includes Euro 467 million in cash from the EU, Euro 20 million in cash and Euro 450 million in assets from industries and Euro 3 million in cash from research institutions.” (IPHE Workshop Report, 2010) 32 to 36 percent of funding will be utilized in transportation and infrastructure, 34-37% in stationary power generation and cogeneration, 10-12% in hydrogen production and transportation, 12-14% in early market development and 6-8% in R&D support, 41-46% in demonstration and the balance in support actions and long-term research.” (IPHE Workshop Report, 2010) There are several fuel cell vehicle demonstration projects that have been ongoing throughout the world including in China, the U.S., and Japan and throughout Europe. It is reported that in California, the focus is placed ‘on the demonstration of fuel cell cars and buses, public education and legislation.” (IPHE Workshop Report, 2010) There are presently 350 fuel cell cars or buses in operation and have been since 1999 in addition to 24 hydrogen-refueling stations, which include three public stations and seven stations under construction and 11 ready for construction. The plan stated is for 40 new hydrogen refueling stations that will be placed into operation during 2009-2014 to serve 4,000 fuel cell cars and 60 fuel cell buses.” (IPHE Workshop Report, 2010) Expectations are for 450, 4200, and 54,300 fuel cell cars in 2012, 2013, and 2015, respectively. There are three phases to the development of fuel cell buses which includes: (1) test (15-17 fuel cell buses in 2011); (2) large-scale demonstration (20-60 fuel cell buses in 2012-2014); and (3) commercialization (60-150 fuel cell buses in 2015-217). (IPHE Workshop Report, 2010)

Infrastructure Cost

It is reported that infrastructure scenarios that are appropriate for EVs are inclusive of the following: (1) residential garage charging; (2) apartment complex charging; and (3) commercial facility charging. Commercial facility charging involves installation of the electric vehicle charging supply in a commercial facility which is stated to consist typically of “installing new dedicated branch circuits from the central meter distribution panel to EVSE (operating at 120 VAC, 40A) for Level 2 charging. The following figure shows the tasks involved in this process.

Figure 1

Levels 1 and 2 electric vehicle supply equipment installation flowchart for a commercial location