All papers examples
Get a Free E-Book!
Log in
HIRE A WRITER!
Paper Types
Disciplines
Get a Free E-Book! ($50 Value)

Articles and Development of Humans, Essay Example

Pages: 6

Words: 1766

Essay

The Mother Of All Humans?

Stringer and McKie claim that the human race is more homogenous than it has previously been thought. Examining various theories related to the development of the human DNA and the research about migration and different strains, the authors find that several scientists now think that the entire race of humans can be traced back to one woman, who gave birth to all people (Stringer and McKie, 6). The idea of a mitochondrial matriarch has attracted critics from all over the world. The flow of genes and the spread of the pre-human population around the world is an important area of examination. The authors ask how the gene flow of the Homo Sapiens was influenced by migration, environment, and the mixing of different gene strands.

Describing the idea of multiregionalism, claiming that humans spread and developed in different regions simultaneously, the authors believe that there was an interaction between Homo Erectus and other races. The main problem that the article finds with the theory of multiregionalism is that it assumes that a single group of humans was present and bred in multiple continents at the same time. Given the geographical barriers and the challenges related to mass migration, the article’s authors claim that this was almost impossible. Given that there was an Ice Age, inland lakes to cross, and glacier-covered passages, the journey of the single group would have been extremely challenging. As some authors state, the idea of one single genetic strain of humans  originating from Africa and then spreading across the world, instead of simultaneously developing in multiple locations make more sense.

The second article, denying the theory of the “African Eve” is presented by Thorne and Wolpoff. The authors claim that it is impossible to trace back human race to a single mother. Reviewing fossil studies and research, the authors state that the final DNA of humans was developed at the point when the group left Africa and started spreading across the globe. The main arguments against the “African Eve” theory presented in the article is that this approach suggests that the entire DNA of hunter-gatherers would become extinct, and the race would be replaced by Homo Sapiens in only 150.000 years, which is a short period of time considering the time evolution takes. The main assumptions of the Eve theory are highlighted by the article as follows: First, modern humans (homo sapiens) should have replaced all other groups. Second, the theory states that all humans originated from Africa. This would, consequently, indicate that modern humans would have African features, considering the short period of time that elapsed between migration and the spread of modern humans. The theory also excludes the possibility of interbreeding among genetically similar species, which is the very basis of all evolution theories. It is extremely unlikely that no interbreeding occurred at the time when multiple DNA strains were present. However, if it did, then genetic modification after the migration out of Africa would have occurred. Finally, comparing the fossil samples from the times before and after the replacement of species would show more differences.

The article claims that the “African Eve” theory is not in line with what researchers currently know about mutation rates, gene positions, and mitochondrial DNA development. If the Eve theory was right, then Eve should have lived about one million years before the migration out of Africa occurred. Even though today’s humans have a high DNA similarity, this cannot be explained with the Eve Theory.

The Fate Of The Neanderthals

Another source of scientific debate is built around the question: “what did happen to the Neanderthals after the appearance of Homo Sapiens?”.  The two articles representing opposing views on the question are attempting to reveal whether or not the DNA strain of the Neanderthals died out, or integrated in the future human species’ strains.

Zilhao’s argument presented in the form of a scientific article claims that there is now evidence for interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans. The evidence, according to the authors, is presented in the form of a fossil finding. The body of a 4-year-old child found in Portugal seems to confirm that the anatomy of the early human had both Neanderthal and modern features. The conclusion of the scientists, however, was based on the measurements of the bones, instead of DNA research.

The main claim of the article is that “the child present a mosaic of Neanderthal and modern human features”(Zilaho, 29). The author states that Neanderthals did not simply disappear 30.000 years ago when modern humans took over, but interbred with the ancestors of today’s people. Indeed, the genetic features of the Neanderthal were necessary for the development of Homo Sapiens. The theory of interbreeding is supported by scientific studies that show that modern apes with more diverse genetic features than the early Humans tend to interbreed. Further, Neanderthals are believed to have existed until as late as 36.500 years ago in Croatia and Crimea.

The article opposing the theory of interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans is presented by Hublin. The author claims that the fossils  collected from Neanderthals differ so much from modern human species that it cannot be one of our ancestors. The idea presented by the article is that Neanderthals did not have a close connection with modern species, and they were simply a diverse strain that was not included in further evolution. Reviewing related evidence, the author claims that there were indeed “transitional” Neanderthal communities that showed the ability of creating art and tools, just like the Cro-Magnons”. The main issue with the related theories that date back decades is that it is hard to explain the complete replacement of population in just a short period of time. There had to be a transitional period when both DNA strains were present. What happened to the Neanderthals that made Homo Sapiens take over the Earth? The article claims that theories related to the absolute superiority of Homo Sapiens over Neanderthals is wrong. Indeed, without Neanderthal communities being able to adapt to the challenging climate of the Ice Age, modern humans would not exist today. Further, it is hard to determine the exact time when the Neanderthals became extinct. The Neanderthals and the modern humans, according to the article, lived separately, and their interaction was limited. The fossil of the 4-year old child described as a proof for interbreeding by Zilaho is claimed to provide insufficient evidence. First off all, because it is a standalone case, and there are no other examples. Secondly, fossils of artifacts, in particular bone carving show that Neanderthals and modern humans had distinct methods, therefore, their interaction was limited. As an alternative theory, the author states that the invasion of modern humans in Europe and the competition for natural resources resulted in the extinction of Neanderthals around 28.000-24.000 years ago.

Genetic Analysis And Reflection

Green et al. state that Neanderthal people died out around 30.000 years ago, and the victory of modern human genetics was a result of a positive selection. The main claim is that Neanderthals were a sister group of modern humans, and it is important to study the genomes of these species’ fossils to trace back the genetic changes that led to the evolution of humanity as we know it today. As a summary of related research, the author states that based on the mitochondrial  DNA analysis of Neanderthals, there is no evidence for interbreeding. Indeed, the mitochondrial DNA of the extinct species are extremely different from modern humans’. The researchers analyzed 21 bone remains of Neanderthals from Vindija Cave, and compared the samples with modern human DNA. The results of the genome analysis suggest that Neanderthals are closer to Eurasian strains than Africans where modern humans are believed to originate from. About 1-4 percent of Eurasian people’s genomes can be traced back to Neanderthals, based on the current evidence. Therefore, there is a little evidence for interbreeding between Neanderthals and Eurasian hominids.

Another research, created by Vernot and Akey shows Neanderthal strains in modern human DNA. The research identified traces of hybridization, and examined the genomic distribution of Neanderthal lineage of DNA, using a two-stage computational strategy. Evidence was found for the gene flow from Neanderthal genomes towards modern human species, even though the presence of the genome varied across geographical regions.

The above review of related research and literature has proven that there was indeed a hybridization between Neanderthals and modern hominids. The theory that Neanderthals were simply wiped off the Earth by Homo Sapiens is not confirmed. Further, the difference in the Neanderthal influence on hominids’ genomes and DNA strains based on geographical location suggests that there was a localized interbreeding, therefore, the influence of Neanderthal genomes is limited to only a few percent of modern humans’ DNA structure. At the same time, the idea that modern humans only developed some 50.000 years ago and rapidly spread across the planet in a relatively short period of time is found to be without foundation. Just like the idea that one “African Eve” was the ancestor of the entire human population, the claim is without any evidence and is contradicted by related research. The significant differences in the bone structures and DNA strains of different human species suggest that the expansion of modern humans took longer than a few tens of thousands of years, and it should be viewed as a constant evolution that reflects interactions with other species, as well as the changing climate and geographical conditions. While the interaction between modern hominids and Neanderthals is thought to be limited, it is extremely possible that the stronger Neanderthal genes that were more suitable for the new lifestyle of humans were replacing some of the existing genes.

Finally, the claim that Neanderthals simply became extinct on the entire Earth from one day to the next is without a foundation. It is likely that in some regions groups survived longer than in other regions, and contributed towards the evolution of Homo Sapiens upon encountering other DNA strain groups.

Works Cited

Hublin, Jean-Jaques. “Brothers or Cousins?” 2000. Print.

Green, Richard E., et al. “A draft sequence of the Neanderthal genome.” Science 328. 5979 (2010): 710-722.

Stringer, Cristopher and Robin McKie  “The Mother of All Humans?” 1996. Print.

Thorne, Alan G.  and Milford H. Wolpoff “The multiregional evolution of humans” 1992. Print.

Vernot, Benjamin, and Joshua M. Akey. “Resurrecting surviving Neandertal lineages from modern human genomes.” Science 343.6174 (2014): 1017-1021.

Zilaho,  Joao. “Fate of the Neanderthals” 2000. Print.

Time is precious

Time is precious

don’t waste it!

Get instant essay
writing help!
Get instant essay writing help!
Plagiarism-free guarantee

Plagiarism-free
guarantee

Privacy guarantee

Privacy
guarantee

Secure checkout

Secure
checkout

Money back guarantee

Money back
guarantee

Related Essay Samples & Examples

Voting as a Civic Responsibility, Essay Example

Voting is a process whereby individuals, such as an electorate or gathering, come together to make a choice or convey an opinion, typically after debates, [...]

Pages: 1

Words: 287

Essay

Utilitarianism and Its Applications, Essay Example

Maxim: Whenever I choose between two options, regardless of the consequences, I always choose the option that gives me the most pleasure. Universal Law: Whenever [...]

Pages: 1

Words: 356

Essay

The Age-Related Changes of the Older Person, Essay Example

Compare and contrast the age-related changes of the older person you interviewed and assessed with those identified in this week’s reading assignment. John’s age-related changes [...]

Pages: 2

Words: 448

Essay

The Problems ESOL Teachers Face, Essay Example

Overview The current learning and teaching era stresses globalization; thus, elementary educators must adopt and incorporate multiculturalism and diversity in their learning plans. It is [...]

Pages: 8

Words: 2293

Essay

Should English Be the Primary Language? Essay Example

Research Question: Should English be the Primary Language of Instruction in Schools Worldwide? Work Thesis: English should be adopted as the primary language of instruction [...]

Pages: 4

Words: 999

Essay

The Term “Social Construction of Reality”, Essay Example

The film explores the idea that the reality we experience is not solely determined by objective facts but is also shaped by the social and [...]

Pages: 1

Words: 371

Essay

Voting as a Civic Responsibility, Essay Example

Voting is a process whereby individuals, such as an electorate or gathering, come together to make a choice or convey an opinion, typically after debates, [...]

Pages: 1

Words: 287

Essay

Utilitarianism and Its Applications, Essay Example

Maxim: Whenever I choose between two options, regardless of the consequences, I always choose the option that gives me the most pleasure. Universal Law: Whenever [...]

Pages: 1

Words: 356

Essay

The Age-Related Changes of the Older Person, Essay Example

Compare and contrast the age-related changes of the older person you interviewed and assessed with those identified in this week’s reading assignment. John’s age-related changes [...]

Pages: 2

Words: 448

Essay

The Problems ESOL Teachers Face, Essay Example

Overview The current learning and teaching era stresses globalization; thus, elementary educators must adopt and incorporate multiculturalism and diversity in their learning plans. It is [...]

Pages: 8

Words: 2293

Essay

Should English Be the Primary Language? Essay Example

Research Question: Should English be the Primary Language of Instruction in Schools Worldwide? Work Thesis: English should be adopted as the primary language of instruction [...]

Pages: 4

Words: 999

Essay

The Term “Social Construction of Reality”, Essay Example

The film explores the idea that the reality we experience is not solely determined by objective facts but is also shaped by the social and [...]

Pages: 1

Words: 371

Essay