Baroque, Classical, Romantic and Post-Romantic Eras, Research Paper Example

Toccata in E minor, BWV 914 – J. S. Bach

Born on March 21, 1685 in Eisenach, Germany, Johann Sebastian Bach is considered one of the greatest known Western composers of classical music. Bach had a prestigious musical lineage which inspired him to take on various organist positions during the early 18th century. During this time he createdmany famous compositions, such as “Toccata and Fugue in D minor.” Later as Kantor of the Thomas School, he composed most of his well-known religious and secular cantatas. Bach’s reputation as a great performer and his great technical skill landed him the position of organist at the New Church in Arnstadt. He was responsible for providing music for religious services and special events as well as giving music instruction.In 1707, Bach left Arnstadt for an organist position at the Church of St. Blaise in Mühlhausen. This move, however, did not turn out as well as he had planned. Bach’s musical style clashed with the church’s pastor, who believed that church music needed to be simple. Bach created complex arrangements and had a fondness for weaving together different melodic lines (Johann Sebastian Bach Biography 2012).

At an earlier age, Bach went to school and received religious instruction along with studying Latin and other subjects. His Lutheran faith would influence his later musical works. By the time he turned 10, Bach found himself an orphan after the death of both of his parents. His older brother Johann Christoph, a church organist in Ohrdruf, took him in. Johann Christoph provided some further musical instruction for his younger brother and enrolled him in a local school. Bach lived with his brother’s family until he was 15.Bach had a beautiful soprano singing voice, which helped him land a place at a school in Lüneburg. Sometime after his arrival, his voice changed and Bach started playing the violin and the harpsichord. Bach was greatly influenced by a local organist named George Böhm. Bach landed his first job as a musician at the court of Duke Johann Ernst in Weimar in 1703. There he was a jack-of-all-trades, serving as a violinist at times and filling in for the official organist in other moments (Johann Sebastian Bach Biography 2012).

Bach had a growing reputation as a great performer, and it was his great technical skill and reputation that landed him the position of organist at the New Church in Arnstadt. Bach was responsible for providing music for religious services and special events as well as giving music instruction. An independent and sometimes arrogant young man, Bach did not get along well with his students and was scolded by church officials for not rehearsing them frequently enough (Johann Sebastian Bach Biography 2012). Through these experiences, Bach musical style seemed to develop beyond the traditional, more simplistic music of his time as he developed a style of complex arrangements and various melodic combinations.

Bach’s German Protestant religion was the inspiration behind many of his works. His seven Toccatas are early works dating from 1708-1710, with some of them believed to dateeven further back. These toccatas represent a synthesis of Italian, French and German style music thatis based upon the seventeenth century toccatas of Girolamo Frescobaldi, Johann Jakob Froberger and Dietrich Buxtehude. All but one of Bach’s toccatas opens with a Prelude; with all seven of them concluding with the fugue. The primary sources for Bach’s toccatas are the Andreas Bach Book and Möller Manuscript, which were compiled by Bach’s older brother, Johann Christian. During his youth, Bach was primarily interested in exploring the possibilities of virtuoso keyboard playing (Krajciova2010).

Bach’s toccatascan be characterized by full chords, runs and harmonies that embrace the performer’s creativity, improvisation and interpretation of the piece. The toccata was an improvisatory piece that consisted of multiple sections sharply contrasting in tempo, dynamics and texture. Their style makes them more suited to the harpsichord, which is why these are comparatively rarely played on the piano. Nonetheless, in the hands of a skilled pianist, these are great works which deserve wider popularity (Piano Societyn.d.).The toccata is characterized by the performer’s creativity, improvisation and interpretation of the piece, which consists of multiple sections that sharply contras in tempo, dynamic and texture.

The harpsichord was the primary keyboard instrument used during the Baroque era, which utilized the basso continuo, a method of playing a continuous bass line to support the higher notes of the melody. A harpsichord can have two keyboards and has a smaller range than that of the piano. Its notes have very little sustain, which makes crescendos, accents and crescendos nearly impossible. The tone and pitch of the harpsichord differ from that of the piano, which is due to the strings being plucked; creating a richer sound. Stops or registers are used either by means of a lever or foot pedal. As the manuals are linked, playing on the lower also engages the upper. The upper manual is fitted with a damper, which changes the quality of the sound when employed (personal interview).

Performance issues may arise due to the piano not allowing for the dynamic variation of the harpsichord. The piano keys are hammered, rather than plucked as in the harpsichord, which enables vibrato and richness of tone. Furthermore, the double action of Bach’s toccatas will be more difficult to play presto or vivace and the bass line may need to be improvised since many of these pieces were played on the organ or harpsichord using a foot pedal. In addition, harpsichords produced greater dynamic levels with the use of stops. By activating a stop the performer could press a singlekey, allowing other octaves to double the sound of the note (personal interview).

The clavichord is the oldest known stringed instrument, which has a soft sound and was usually used for playing in the home.It was never meant to be used for performance playing due to its soft tonal quality. Several of the notes on the clavichord all use the same string. Thiscan pose as a disadvantagein not being able to play those that share the same string as a chord. Unlike the harpsichord, the clavichord is velocity-sensitive (i.e. you can play soft and loud, like on a piano), but its sound is too weak for a concert hall. The piano (and its predecessor, the fortepiano) were developed in no small measure to combine the “piano e forte” (soft and loud) capabilities of the clavichord with the greater volume of the harpsichord (Johan Sebastian Bach n.d.).

Further complications may arise when transcribing some of Bach’s work onto piano in terms of tuning and pitch. The prevalent tuning of most instruments in Bach’s time was chamber pitch and was almost a semitone lower than modern tuning. Most exponents of “authentic Baroque performance practice” tune their generally historical or reconstructed instruments to chamber pitch. In contrast, many organs in Bach’s days were tuned to “choir pitch,” which was about a full tone higher than “chamber pitch” and about a semitone higher than modern pitch. Equal temperament is the tuning system used on modern fixed-pitch instruments, in which the octave is divided in twelve equal parts. “None of the intervals except the octave are ‘pure’, all keys are playable, and all keys are equivalent in terms of relative pitch. At the other extreme stands  intonation,  in which all intervals in the C major scale are ‘perfect’ simple ratios (e.g. 3/2 for a perfect fifth, 5/4 for a perfect major third,…)but not identical to the ‘natural’ scale of overtones” (Johann Sebastian Bach n.d.).

The trouble with Ptolemaean tuning is that music in any key other than C major sounds out of tune. Pythagorean temperament, which is commonly heard in string players, is based on stacking up pure fifths, leading to “sharp” Pythagorean thirds.In addition, after stacking up twelve pure fifths, you do not get back exactly to C: the difference of about a fifth of a semitone is known as the ‘Pythagorean comma’. ‘Mean tone’ tuning tries to get rid of the Pythagorean thirds by tuning fifths to 51/4 rather than 3/2. This leads to a tuning that sounds ‘clean’ in C major and tolerable up to three sharps and two flats, but intolerable in ‘remote’ keys, such as F# major or Eb minor, which was the was the prevalent tuning when Bach started his career. A number of theoreticians advocated ‘well-tempered’ tunings which would remain playable in all 24 keys (Johann Sebastian Bach, nd). Modern equal temperament is one special case of the more general ‘well-temperament’. Other well-tempered tunings have unequal intervals, and hence every key acquires its own characteristics, even to a listener with relative pitch. It is unclear to the present day what the ‘well-tempered’ tuning is that Bach had in mind (Johann Sebastian Bach n.d.).

Performance practice issues playing the Bach’s Toccata in E Minor on the modern piano first involves the difficulty in sustaining a tone in one voice without using the damper pedal on the piano. It is quite difficult to hold the half notes without using the damper pedal on the piano. If played on the organ or harpsichord, those half notes could be sustained by using different keyboards, or with the pedals. The fingering also seems to be quite awkward, but it would also be awkward on the harpsichord. It would be very difficult to play the fugue on a grand piano. Remember, there is a double action that takes more strength to depress the keys, as opposed to either the organ or harpsichord. Difficulties in sustaining the half notes; the difficulty with the fast tempo of the fugue section (the fastest) due to the double action of the grand piano, and the fingering required of Bach’s Toccatain E Minor create performance issues when transcribing this piece to the modern piano.

The Toccata in E Minor was originally written for harpsichord and often played on the pipe organ.Resolving the transcription issues when playing Bach’s Toccata in E Minor can be achieved by incorporating the use of the foot pedal in order to counterbalance the mechanical sound. Although a “mechanical like” sound was popular during the Baroque era, the fullness of the pipe organ and the sustain of the harpsichord provides the echo and fullness a piano does not provide. Since toccatas resemble annotations of improvisations, there is considerable latitude in how they can be interpreted. Improvisation, using accents, crescendos and decrescendos in order to being fullness to the piece when being played on modern piano also allows the transcribing of this piece to accommodate the instrument being used.

On the harpsichord, tapering a phrase (playing two keys at the same time at different volumes) and imitating a natural raise and fall is not possible. Although the piano can sustain a longer sound, the use of the foot pedal must be incorporated to do so. Although originally written or the harpsichord, itwas not powerful enough for large concert halls; which provides a slightadvantage when playing Bach’s works on the piano in a concert hall. Although the clavichord was more expressive than the harpsichord, it was feeble in tone. The piano allows for everything Bach demands when in the hands of a skilled performer (Hewitt 2008). Although the possibilities are endless, performing Bach on the piano involves many more decisions in tone color and pressure of key touch. A trademark of a true Bach pianist is the ability to distinguish these by incorporating different tonalqualities.

The harpsichord is uniform in its volume and there is no way to give one sound to the first voice and another to a second, which can be resolved using the piano. Articulation within a phrase is rarely indicated by Bach. When playing Bach on the modern piano, choosing an articulation on a piece that simply shows the notes can bring a detached version to life, giving it dimension and personal interpretation. Picking out the most important notes of the piece and detaching the opening four notes in two different ways while placing a slight emphasis on the beat, will give the piece the clarity and precision Bach intended. As the left hand carries the harmonic structure, everything the right hand can do when playing must be done equally as well with the left hand when playing Bach. In Bach, the right hand should not have prominence over the left but the balance is equally distributed; it is the performer who must decide which voice to bring out at varying moments (Hewitt 2008).

Rhythmic alterations can be seen through various interpretations of Bach Performances. The way notes were notated is not always the way they werepreformed. Double doting was standard practice and can be used during performance to give flare and dramatics to the piece by pausing longer than what is actually written. Alterations can be used to sharpen or give emphases to the melody. Finally, ornamentations are an essential part of baroque interpretation and are not options “extras.” They are an essential part of a melodic line. It simplifies the need to write out various notes while giving the interpreter greater freedom. As quoted by the great Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach;“No one disputes the need for embellishments; this is evident from the great numbers of them everywhere to be found, they are in fact, indispensable. Considertheir many uses, they connect and enliven tones, and in parts, stress and accent. They make music pleasing and awaken our close attention. Expression is heightened by them.Let a piece be sad, joyful or otherwise, and the will lend a fitting assistance. Embellishments provide opportunities for fine performance, as well as much of its subject matter. They improve mediocre compositions. Without them, the best melody is empty and ineffective; the clearest content, clouded (Hewitt 2008).

It takes an inspired performer to bring Bach’s music to life on a modern piano. Bach’s works allow for freedom, despite his guidelines and table of ornaments being very precise. Articulation and variation as interpreted by the performer will make playing Bach’s works on the piano much more interesting, giving it depth and an echo of liveliness and inspiration. Bach’s majestic works embrace genius and innovation during a time period of mechanical simplicity. His music encompasses the delicate balance that allows for interpretation and ornamentation while maintaining its precise structure and beautifully balanced, harmonic sound quality.

Sonata No.62 in Eb Major, Hob. XVI/52 – Joseph Haydn

Joseph Haydn was born in the village of Rohrau in 1732, the son of a wheelwright. Trained at the choir-school of St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna, he spent some years earning a living teaching and playing the violin or keyboard. As Haydn assumed command of an increased musical establishment, he assumed responsibility for the musical activities of the palace, which included the provision and direction of instrumental music, opera and theatre music, and music for the church. For his patron he provided a quantity of chamber music. Haydn was able to accept an invitation to visit London, where he provided music for the concert season organized by the violinist-impresario Salomon. A second successful visit to London in 1794 and 1795 was followed by a return to duty with the Esterházy family, the new head of which had settled principally at the family property in Eisenstadt, where Haydn had started his career, although much of his year was spent in Vienna (Haydn n.d.).

Haydn, fondly known as “Pappa Haydn” is also called the “father of the symphony.” Although better known for his numerous symphonies, with the most famous being the SurpriseSymphony, he also wrote piano delightful sonatas. Over his entire career, Haydn composed sixty-two sonatas for the piano. Haydn is often considered more innovative as a composer than his contemporary Mozart, which is quite evident in his last piano sonata. Even for Haydn, the harmonic exploration of the Sonata in E-flat major is unusual. Composed in 1794, the published edition is dedicated to a certain Magdalena von Kurzbeck. However, Haydn’s autograph score is dedicated to Therese Jansen, a remarkable piano virtuoso whom he had met during his travels to London during the 1790s (Gordeladze 2007).

The classical keyboard sonata developed during the eighteenth century. Changes in the form and content of the sonata started taking place during Haydn’s life-time. This formal development took place during a period in time when keyboard instruments were rapidly changing, with the harpsichord and clavichord gradually replaced by the new hammer-action fortepiano. There are about fourteen early harpsichord sonatas attributed to Haydn. Of his 47 1ater keyboard sonatas, dating from about 1765, the first thirty were designed for harpsichord and the next nine for harpsichord and/or piano. The remaining eight include seven sonatas that were specifically intended for piano and only one intended for piano and/or harpsichord. The principal musical difference between music for the harpsichord and music for the piano lies in the possibilities for gradual dynamic change, indications of which appear in Haydn’s later sonatas (Haydn n.d.).

The Sonata in E flat major, XVI:49 in the Hoboken listing of Haydn’s works, was dedicated to Anna von Gerlischek, a housekeeper in the service of the Esterházys, who later married the Esterháza violinist Johann Tost. The E flat Sonata did present some problems which arose over a pirated edition of the sonata, attributed by Haydn to the activities of an unscrupulous copyist (Joseph Haydn n.d). The opening figure of the first movement assumes importance as the work progresses, with a four note figure near the end of the exposition leading, in the central development section, to a brief cadenza before the final recapitulation. The first movement of the sonata is a masterfully crafted sonata form in E-flat, which opens with a majestic theme over full-voiced chords in the low register of the piano. With such an opening, one can almost imagine the sonata as a fitting prelude to the revolutionary sonatas of Beethoven. Chromaticism is thrust to the fore from the outset and is a feature that is constantly explored throughout the piece. A second theme, in the usual dominant key, follows with both hands in the upper register giving it a “music box” sound quality. As the development begins in the foreign key of C major, an even greater harmonic leap is made when the second theme later returns in the key E major. A masterful return is made to the tonic key through an enharmonic modulation and the recapitulation commences (Gordeladze 2007).

The second movement, theb flat Adagio is a movement of particular elegance and beauty. Upon returning to the distant key of E major, the middle Adagio begins with an elaborate melody that is divided into two sections with each section being repeated. As its first section remains firmly rooted in the tonic key, its latter half briefly moves through the key of C major, reemphasizing the harmonic explorations of the first movement. Structured as a large ternary form, the middle section is less melodic than the opening, adopting a more fantasia-like character. An embellished return of the opening and a brief coda round-out the movement Gordeladze 2007). The second movement – the adagio (meaning at ease) starts with a deceptively simple motis that expands to large chords and runs before changing to the key of e minor. It has numerous runs, grace notes, and 64^th note triplets and expands to the simple motis to large dramatic chords and ends simple pianissimo whisper.

The energetic Presto finale begins with a tune that appears unable to get underway. As it starts, first in the tonic key of E-flat and then a step higher in F minor, each come to a halt on a pause. Finally, it breaks free into a florid run over alternating tonic and dominant harmonies. Chromaticism is once again the prominent feature of this movement, though this time its use is entirely humorous. Instead of the usual rondo structure, the finale is written as a full-fledged sonata form (Gordeladze 2007).The final Tempodi Minuet includes a version of the principal theme in the key of E flat minor, before the re-establishment of the original key brings the sonata to an end (Joseph Haydn n.d.).

Haydn considered his keyboard sonatas to be among his minor compositions; he took little care to document them for posterity.  The Sonata No.62 in E-flat Major (Hob.XVI:52) was composed in 1794 and affirms its stature with the very opening chords as it produces dramatic punctuations that set the stage for an unraveling of its music. This is, perhaps the most dynamic of all of the sonatas. “With its extraordinary harmonic design and its forays into near-romantic expressionism, its key relationships are remarkable, not only in terms of the striking modulations within movements, but also in the fact that the middle Adagio is daringly cast in E major from the outer movements in E flat. This slow movement offers contrast to the Finale; a whirlwind Presto”(Reisenberg 1998).

Haydn’s late works for the piano provide an interesting example of a movement written in the contredanse style: the finale of the famous sonata in E flat major, Hob. XVI/52. Set in 2/4 time, many important characteristics of the contredanse are revealed. As the characteristic rhythms are retained, the first bar of music experiments with the movement of arrival of the expected downbeat by postponing it while adding an extra bar. Haydn’s tendency to incorporate irregular phrase structures can be heard throughout most of the remaining movement. This composition could have been put into proper contredanse form by setting four bars in the tonic, four bars in the subdominant and another eight bars in the dominant. However, Haydn uses eight bars of tonic, eight bars of supertonic and then another twelve bars leading back to the tonic, with the cadence occurring in bar 28 instead of bar 16.16. The first fermata occurs after the first phrase in bar 8 and thus stops the music from getting properly under way. The same thing happens in bars 8-16 where the first phrase is repeated up a step followed by another fermata. In bars 195-203, just before the recapitulation, a series of five fermatas completely breaks the flow of the music (bb. 109-203 are even labeled ‘Adagio’) (Different Stylistic Voices in Haydn’s Piano Music 2004).

Mechanical instruments were particularly fashionable during Haydn’s lifetime. Haydn’s special relationship with mechanical instruments also influenced his instrumental music compositions; the most famous example being the ‘Clock’ Symphony (no. 101). The 32 compositions and adaptations were written specifically for flute playing clocks. This influence can be heard in the sonata Hob.  XVI/52 in E flat and in the F minor variations Hob. XVII/6 (Different Stylistic Voices in Haydn’s Piano Music 2004). In the first movement of the E flat major sonata, Haydn plays an imitative role of a musical clock, mimicing the characteristic sounds of the mechanical instrument. During the slow movement of the Hob. XVI/52, further imitations of the mechanical instrument can be found in the passages of parallel thirds (e.g. bb. 3-4), the high register of many of the melodic gestures and the delicate melodic flourishes and ornamentation are highly characteristic. But here they are applied for a very different purpose: since mechanical toys were a typical fashion of the aristocracy, the allusion to them in the Adagio helps Haydn to indicate a lifting of the social tone of the music (Different Stylistic Voices in Haydn’s Piano Music 2004).

The E flat major sonata Hob. XVI/52 also contains elements of the ‘military style’ music that could be heard throughout London during Haydn’s lifetime. Bars 44 ff. of the finale, derived from the opening repeated note figure, clearly replicate a military drum. However, the rest of the movement is modeled on a contredanse, which would not involve the use of drums (Different Stylistic Voices in Haydn’s Piano Music 2004). Suggestions of Turkish music were also often applied to create a general foreign or dramatic effect. During the first movement of the Sonata No.62 in Eb Major, the sudden change of dynamic, the scalic runs, and the repetition of notes and octaves are all suggestive of the Turkish style musical influence. One of the most striking aspects of Haydn’s sonata in E flat is the fullness in sound that is achieved by the generous use of big chords. The fullness of tone and the long resonance, constituted an excellent physical basis for the imposition of full textures capable of carrying through a large concert hall (Different Stylistic Voices in Haydn’s Piano Music 2004).

The studies of eighteenth-century performance practices are helpful to the modern performer. This can help lead to an increased awareness in regards to how music may have been performed during a specific period in a manner consonant with the composer’s expectations. There are certain expectations based on traditions and instruments of the time period that clearly indicate Haydn’s intentions, which can be recognized when playing on a modern piano. Several treatises written in the eighteenth century describe how to interpret such musical elements as dynamics, rhythm, touch, articulation, ornaments, and tempo from the point of view of musicians in that era (Treviranus 2012).

Difficulties in Haydn’s Sonata in Eb Major lie in the rhythmic breaks; there is no rhythmical break between the prolonged dominant of the half cadence. Playing this expressively while maintain rhythmic balance will require musicality and tonal inflection within the rhythmic breaks. The second movement is marked Adagio and seems to create a theme in three parts. Producing a sound that is clear, yet powerful also must be expressed with precision when performing this piece in order to produce a clean sound and tonal harmony. Haydn’s form may be described as having three distinct parts: exposition, development, and recapitulation(Treviranus 2012). The role of the exposition is to present two contrasting tones. The principal thematic area is in the tonic key, while the secondary thematic area is usually in the dominant or some other closely related key. As transition to the dominate key is continually developing harmonic exploration, the characteristic theme returns throughout the movement.

Ornaments also play a prominent role throughout the movement.  Executing this dotted rhythm in eighteenth-century music style can be achieved by lengthening the dotted eighth-note beyond its notated value while shortening the sixteenth note (Treviranus 2012). The degree to which this will take place will be dependent upon the tempo. Articulation is also used to create a dramatic effect through its uses of tonic separation. Additional challenges may arise when interpreting and performing the allegro movement. Determinations regarding the exact speed of the given tempo indication continues to be discussed among music scholars and performers. As Haydn marks the first movement of this sonata Allegro, most dictionaries and handbooks give allegro as the “standard moderately fast tempo” while its Italian translation means ‘merry, ‘cheerful’ or ‘lively’ (Treviranus 2012). Since the term allegro is non-specific, performances may rely heavily upon the interpretations of the performer.

As interpretation may play a role in determining the given tempo of the allegro, the dynamic indications are also somewhat subject to the performer’s interpretations since the early sonatas were written for harpsichord and contained no dynamic indications. Despite the influence of the English piano, Haydn’s dynamic markings in the Sonata No. 62 are minimal, and are confined only to forte, piano, and fz. When performing Haydn’s sonata on a modern-day piano, it is important to consider that Haydn wrote this in response to the innovations of the English Broadwood, which had a wider dynamic range and a bigger overall sound than the Viennese pianos. From the standpoint of a modern-day pianist, the dynamics of Haydn’s sonata should have a quality of vividness, but still be tempered while avoiding the extremes of the piano’s range of dynamics (Treviranus 2012).

Acquiring an in depth awareness of eighteenth-century performance practice is essential to the modern performer’s awareness of the way music may have been performed during Haydn’s time period. Specific elements, such as dynamics, rhythm, touch, articulation, ornaments, and tempo should articulate the point of view of musicians in that era. Haydn’s inspiration was fueled by the English piano, which offered a broader variety of sound; contributing to Haydn’s inspiration behind expanding the scale of his writing. This resulted in Haydn employing thicker textures and wider dynamic ranges within his compositions. The keyboard was of utmost importance to the writing of Haydn’s works, as it was through this instrument that he was able to realize his musical ideas (Treviranus 2012).

Sonata in E minor, Op. 7 – Edvard Grieg
The Norwegian composer, Edvard Grieg was born June 15, 1843.  His parents were persuaded by violinist Ole Bull to send Grieg to Leipzig for music study, and he later studied with Niels Gade and others in Copenhagen, where he became inspired with the ideal of a Norwegian national music. He frequently performed as a pianist and often accompanied his wife in recitals of his songs. His incidental music to Henrik Ibsen’s play Peer Gynt (1875) became, with his piano concerto (1868), perhaps his best-known work. Highly popular in his time, he is still regarded as Norway’s greatest composer. His other works include Symphonic Dances (1897), Lyric Suite (1904), more than 150 songs, and many works for piano, including 66 Lyric Pieces (1867-1901) and From Holberg’s Time (1884) (Britannica Concise Encyclopedia 2009).

Early nineteenth-century Romanticism was far from being the conscious, concerted, homogeneous movement that directed against classicism. Rather than disdain or discard the forms, genres, and techniques of their musical forefathers were apparent in the instrumental works of many composers active during the second half of the eighteenth century. “Classicism in music emphasized objectivity, clarity, equilibrium, serenity, grace, elegance, and wit; classical forms were rational and restrained” (Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era 2004). The primary goal was the cultivation of symmetry and proportion as illustrated in the sonata form with its three sections: exposition (of two contrasting musical themes), development (of the two themes), and recapitulation (a reconciliation of the themes). This was the musical outline of the first movement of the classical keyboard sonata, symphony and string quartet, trio. The building blocks of the sonata form were four-measure phrases and clear-cut harmonic patterns endowed with specific formal functions. Throughout the last decades of the eighteenth century sonata form was one of the primary means of musical architecture, the very embodiment of classical consciousness, order and logic” (Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era 2004).

Romantic composers had an inclination for exaggeration and lack of balance, which resulted in the forging of the size of musical works. During the first three or four decades of the century, both vocal and instrumental arrangements were often placed in sets or cycles and sometimes related either through a musical or a literary or autobiographical theme. Many Romantic composers were adept at penning small-scale piano pieces such as impromptus, waltzes, nocturnes, barcarolles, arabesques, and the like to be played in salons (Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era 2004). The sonatas of the Romantic period exemplify the rich variety of national and personal styles that characterize the era. In structure and basic approach, they fall into two categories. To the first belong the sonatas of Schubert, Weber, Chopin, Schumann, Brahms, Grieg, Fauré and Franck, which expand the Classical three- or four-movement form but do not break with it. While rarely achieving the logic or fluent rhythmic organization of the high Classical masterworks, they often sought a more positive organization of the cycle of movements. The ‘basic motif’ in Brahms’ Violin Sonata op. 78 and the ‘cyclical procedures’ in Franck’s Violin Sonata represent conscious methods of tying the movements together. Among sonatas in the smaller second category are those based on a programme, like Liszt’s “Après une lecture de Dante, fantasia quasi sonata”, or those which experiment with structure, such as the same composer’s single-movement Piano Sonata in b Minor (Sonata n.d.).

Although Grie was a composer whose uncountable talent can been seen throughout many of his works, lacking in popularity in comparison to other composers of the romantic era may derive from the similarities of folk music heard throughout his works. This differed from many of the works of other great composers of his time. Much of the instrumental Norwegian folk music is built up of small melodic themes, which are repeated with small variations in appoggiatura and sometimes with rhythmic displacements. Sections are then joined together to form larger units. We seldom find any true development as it is understood in traditional classical music. This may be why it also became so difficult to distinguish between what in Grieg’s works came originally from folk-music, and what was his own composition. This must also have been especially difficult for foreign critics and audiences (Piano Music Vol.1 n.d.).

Grieg’s Piano Sonata in E minor, Opus 7, was composed during the course of eleven days, in the spring of 1865. Strong personal harmonic and melodic traits, especially in the last movement seems to be a trait that would influence many of Grieg’s works later on. The special melodic twist in the folk-song that is expressed very clearly in the Humoresques, Opus 6 the last piece on this record is not quite so clear in the Piano Sonata. Grieg wrote his first published work for piano, Four Piano Pieces, Opus 1, between 1861 and 1863. Although these pieces express his originality, it is still not clear what his personal style is attempting to convey. These compositions reveal significant influence from Mendelssohn, Schuman, and Chopin. Here we find harmonic progressions and melodic twists that were later integrated into his personal style as it grew, matured, and changed over time (Piano Music Vol.1 n.d.). Edvard Grie’s Piano Sonata in E minor, Opus 7 is played in four movements: allegro moderato, andante molto, alla menuetto, and molto allegro which change in dynamics and tempo and does not appear to have the same consistency in tempo and dynamic as some of his other piano works, which embrace the Norwegian folk music influence of his time.

Grieg seemed to experience periods of being unable to compose, alternating with explosive creativity. From 1877 to 1878, he only managed to complete a few works; the G Minor String Quartet, Opus 27, and the Album Leaves for piano, Opus 28; Improvisations on two Norwegian Folk Songs, Opus 29; the Album for Male Voices, Opus 30, based on folk tunes; and Den Bergtekne (The Mountain Thrall), Opus 32, a dramatic work for baritone, two horns and string orchestra (Jarrett 2001). Following the brief periods of breaks in music which alternated with musical inspirations that compelled him to compose, Grieg was inspired as a result of a walking tour through the mountains with the Danish poet, Holger Drachmann, to which he wrote the music for Drachmann’s poetry. Motivated by his ability to compose once again, Grieg wrote his final, and greatest, violin sonata, in C minor, Opus 45 (Jarrett 2001).

Grieg’s stringed sonatas and piano sonata both seem to have elements that imitate Norwegian folk dance music. However, Grieg’s stringed compositions tend to showcase the mastery of harmonic texture that Grieg possessed. Grieg’s interest in Norwegian folk music can also be heard in many of his works in the falling minor followed by a falling major third. Hints of Norwegian fiddle music can also be detected in throughout a variety of his works. Other similarities in Grieg’s piano sonata and his stringed works are the use of minor keys, change in tempo, and the abundant use of crescendos and decrescendos, which creates a sense of passion and dramatic flair. In addition, Grieg’s piano sonata exaggerates this dramatic flair by adding pedal points that imitate the open strings of the violin (Saari 2007).

As Grieg uses folk rhythms, underlines some modal features, imitates the open strings of the violin, and uses drones, the use of the keys also reflect something of importance. A total of 76% of the used keys – nineteen of the twenty-five pieces – are based on a tonic in G, D, or A, i.e. they seem to be connected with the open strings of a violin. Looking for example at all the 66 Lyriske Stykke we may find that forty-two of them (63,7%) are related to the keys with a tonal center of G, D, A or E. In form, Grieg often adds an introduction (in 21 cases) the length of which is 1-4 measures, thus establishing the accompanying figuration. In 16 transcriptions he adds a coda of 1-16 measures. In four cases (numbers 1, 8, 12, and 16) the transcription is a set of variations, but in 10 pieces Grieg simply repeats the melody or a part of it as such (nos. 4-7, 9, 11, 15, 17, 18 and 23). In some cases he adds a short transitory passage (nos. 5, 8, and 18). These additions change the structure of the piece. One can see this especially in some cadential passages or in cases where Grieg rounds off irregular phrases (Saari 2007).

Difficulties in preparing Grie’s Sonata in E Minor, Op.7 arose from the intervals. Grieg often used difficult and big intervals.In the beginning of the piece when the left hand plays those alberti bass with very large intervals and a similar left hand appears later in the first movement can be challenging in regards to proper fingering techniques. Long fingers would definitely be an advantage for those facing this challenge. Issues of interpretation regarding tempo also posed as a challenge since this piece can be heard at varying tempos according to each musician’s personal interpretation. Moreover, the left hand plays tremolos in a relatively fast tempo and the 16th pauses on the beat, the short pause while maintaining the rhythmic intensity will require practice and repetition in order to perfect this piece.

Although the “Piano Sonata in E Minor, Op.7,” composed in 1865, was Grieg’s only piano sonata written, his structural aspects embrace enthusiasm through its tempo, harmonies, and melody. The “Piano Sonata in E Minor, Op.7” demonstrates Grieg’s attempts to integrate Norwegian music elements. By changing the tempo, range, harmony or tonality, diverse streams of melody are presented and elements such as chromatic, dominant, ostinato and perfect fifth generate distinctive effects of harmony. Long pedaling is another distinctive feature incorporated by Grieg, which created a lingering sound that generates the vagueness emphasized by the Impressionists (Kuo 2009).

Grieg’s strengths seem to lie within his harmonic abilities. Grieg’s ability to captivate through his enticing rhythmic styles while incorporating elements of traditional Norwegian folk melodies set Grieg apart from other composers of his era. His strong ties to nature almost appear to come though in his musical expressions. As his music tends to amplify the images and intended mood or feelings Grieg was experiencing, his harmonic innovations are in inspiration to other musicians as it transcends cultural boundaries.

Sonata No. 1, Op. 22 – Alberto Ginastera

Alberto Ginastera was born in 1916 in Buenos Aries. He began piano lessons at the age of eight and would continue his piano training by enrolling at the Williams Conservatory. It was here that Ginastera would increase his repertoire; studying theory, harmony, solfege, and composition. Ginastera graduated from the National Conservatory in 1938. In addition to being an accomplished composer, Ginastera was also a teacher and administrator. He was a faculty of the National Conservatory of Argentina, the San Martin National Military Academy, the National University of LaPlata, and the Catholic University of Argentina. Ginastera composed within a variety of genres which include eleven piano pieces, including the Sonata No.1, Op.22. Prior to his death in 1983, Ginastera composed two more sonatas (Russell, 2003).

Ginastera set high standards for himself. He started composing in 1930 but destroyed most of his early works in order to ensure that he would be remembered for his best works (Alberto Ginastera n.d). Because he incorporated local and national themes, Ginastera was held in high regard for more than a decade, with successful performances of orchestral and ballet scores enhancing his reputation. However, Ginastera was never very ‘politically correct’ and opposed Juan Peron’s new government – one which Ginastera felt inhibited artistic expressions. He left Argentina in 1941 and traveled to the United States where he stayed until 1947. He spent the time interacting with American composers and studied with Aaron Copland at Tanglewood. When Ginastera returned to Argentina, he formed the Composers’ League and founded the Conservatory of Music and Scenic Arts at La Plata. In addition to this he also held numerous academic positions (Alberto Ginastera n.d.).

In the beginning of his career, Ginastera found himself at the forefront of Argentine nationalism; a movement begun by the composer Alberto Williams. As a proponent of this movement, Ginastera began writing music that was inspired by the European and Indian heritage of Argentina. Upon gaining its independence from Spain, a society of Creoles was flourishing, contributing to the Spanish influence of musical contributions; including the use of the guitar. Inspired by Argentine culture, Ginastera incorporated symbols from Spanish, Indian, and Creole culture. Spanish guitar chords and the “gauchesco” dance malambo are prominent within the piano music. As Ginastera uses the rhythm of this dance, he often employs a tempo faster than the traditional dance (Russell, 2003).

Much of Ginastera’s style focuses on nationalism, which he divided into periods he identified as objective nationalism (1 934- 1947), subjective nationalism (1 947-1 957) and neo-expressionism (1 958-1 983) ( Marchman 2006). The objective nationalism period is characterized by a direct reference to Argentine folk materials, the subjective nationalism period by the integration of sublimated Argentine traits, and the neo-expressionist period by the employment of dodecaphony and other avant-garde techniques (Marchman 2006). His early works belong to the first period which was also influenced by Stravinsky, Bartok, and Schoenberg. Ginastera’s admiration for and careful study of composers such as Stravinsky, Bartók, Schoenberg seems to influence his ideals in pitch, rhythm, and timbric organization. By the end of the 19^th Century, composers working within the tradition of Western music have taken remarkably diverse approaches to composition. Works of varying style and expression and the language of tonality becomes one choice among many, and formal as well as rhythmic musical elements associated with regional traditions come to the forefront (Sommerville 2009).

As an influence in Ginastera’s musical inspirations, Arnold Schoenberg is one of the most significant figures in 20th century music with his early works composed in a late Romantic style. Schoenberg later abandoned a tonal framework altogether, instead writing freely atonal music.In time, he developed the twelve-tone technique of composition, intended to be a replacement for traditional tonal pitch organization. The twelve-tone technique itself was later adapted by other composers, such as Ginastera, to control aspects of music other than the pitch of the notes (20^th Century Classical 2010). Stravinsky’s style is its changing face and technical considerations such as rhythm and harmony. Emerging from the spirit of late Russian nationalism and ending his career with a individual language steeped in twelve-tone principles, Stravinsky assumed a number of aesthetic guises throughout the course of his development while always retaining a distinctive, essential identity (Igor Stravinsky 2012).

Béla Bartók (March 25, 1881-September 26, 1945), the greatest Hungarian composer, was one of the most significant musicians of the twentieth century; influencing many composers, one of them being Ginastera. He shared passion for ethnomusicology. His music was invigorated by the themes, modes, and rhythmic patterns of the Hungarian and other folk music traditions he studied, which he synthesized with influences from his contemporaries into his own distinctive style (Bela Bartok 2012).Bartók also became interested in other folk traditions, such as studying the folk music of Romanians, Slovakians, Serbs, Croatians, Bulgarians, Turks, and North Africans as well as Hungarians. While visiting Algeria in 1906, Bartók had a vision of how he might begin to order scattered folk tunes of the world. This ended any desire on his part for the kind of career others had projected for him, as “the future master of the most charming salon music.” Afterwards, the main task of his life was to collect, analyze, and catalogue major portions of the world’s folk music (Bela Bartok 2012). This multi-ethnic interest can is also reflected in the music of Ginastera. The traditional Culturalistic musical influence heard throughout Bartok’s many compositions and the dynamic rhythmic patterns also appear present throughout many of the works of Ginastera’s.

Ginastera classified his oeuvre into three periods that are reflected in his music: Objective Nationalism involved Argentine folk music and dances applied throughout his early works. The music is generally accessible with a tonal blend and vibrant, ‘sizzling’ rhythms. It usually represents the culture of Argentine, ranging from the silent grandeur of the vast pampas to dynamic dances of gauchos.  Examples of this period include 12 American Preludes, piano (1944) (check out for my sound files); The Danzas Argentinas, piano (1937); Suite de danzas criollas, piano (1946); Panambi, ballet (1940) (Alberto Ginastera n.d.).

Subjective Nationalism is incorporated without applying nationalistic elements directly as in Objective Nationalism; the music is purely from the composer’s own ideas, but still in the style of Argentine characters. Objective Nationalism symbolizes the characteristics of Argentine folk music elusively rather than conveys them explicitly. Examples of this period: Piano Sonata no.1 (1952); Pampeano no.3 for orchestra (1954); String Quartet no.1 (1948); Variaciones concertantes for orchestra (1953) (Alberto Ginastera n.d.).

In Neo-expressionism, the music is generally atonal as a result of being influenced by the expressionism of Schoenberg and Berg. “It is very emotional as it conveys the expression of Romantic Surrealism, tragedy, fantasy and supernatural.” Examples of this period: Estudios sinfónicos for orchestra (1967); String Quartet no.2 (1958); 2 piano concertos (1961 & 1972 respectively); Don Rodrigo, opera (1964); Beatrix Cenci, opera (Alberto Ginastera n.d.).

The rhythms in Ginastera’s music are largely derived from the Argentine dance tradition. An Argentine horseman, the malambo was a competitive dance in which the participants would challenge their opponents with increasingly vigorous dance steps. Music of the malambo was in 618 meter and often employed syncopated rhythms. The syncopated rhythms of the malambo were performed to emulate the dancer’s rapid foot work and were produced by the varied strum patterns of the guitarist. The rhythmic foundation of the malambo is based on a harmonic progression that is composed of major triads, this also illustrates the dialectical relationship between rhythm and harmony within a malambo (Marchman 2006).Ginastera’s Sonata No.2 Op.22 contains four movements cast in traditional forms, such as sonata-allegro, sonata-rondo, song form, etc. Ginastera clearly indicates tempo, dynamic, and phrase markings throughout these four movements. However, specific pedal markings are limited, which seems to leave this to be interpreted at the digression of the performer.

The Allegro Marcato in sonata form is highly syncopated. While it is predominately forte in dynamics, piano is used in the second theme only. As the first theme requires the pianist to register quickly, the second theme has a line of single notes, which is played quietly. Although most phrases are consistent with Argentine folk songs, an Incan influence can be heard on an anhemitonic scale (Russell 2003). Bartok’s influence can be seen in the various tempos of this piece. The sonata is written in polytonal and twelve tone procedures with thematic rhythms textures and melodic movements. The first theme contains a skip of the minor third that is used as a germinal motivein the allegro marcato. Parallel thirds are found throughout this movement, which is characteristic of Argentine music (Hanley 1969).

Ginastera applying the materials from the Argentine folk music to his compositions was very similar to Bartók’s approach in his compositions. However, in the last period of his compositions, Ginastera used 12-tone method, polytonality, quarter tones and other micro-intervals as the model of his works. While the music is atonal, he often worked within the frame of traditional forms like Sonata form, Theme & Variation.  He also applied a quotation technique, one of the powerful composing tools of the 20th Century where a particular theme is borrowed from other composer’s works. Ginastera further extended the limits of instrumental techniques which resulted in enriched tones and moods. For example, the use of clusters, microtonal sonorities and aleatory structures demand for virtuosic playing (Alberto Ginastera n.d.).

Although the influence of Argentine folk music can be seen throughout the works of Ginastera, he seemed to gradually move away from this trend in his early period to an international style that incorporates contemporary techniques. As the sonata reflects polychordal textures, intricate harmonies,pedal points, use of modes and extreme use of registers of the piano, the advancements in Ginastera’s works seem to showcase an international style. Frequent meter changes in are also used in the first movement of the sonata, giving the movement a “restless” feeling as two different chord streams move independently (Hanley 1969).During the second movement, twelve-tone procedures as well as rhythmic and melodic sounds indicate national style characteristics of Argentine folk music. The third movement of the sonata uses the twelve tones equally in relation to temporary tonal centers. The finale of the Sonata is toccata style and concludes with a malambo movement with developed technique (Hanley 1969).

Performance challenges of the Sonata No. 1 include perfecting the leaps from one register to another, maintaining a steady eighth note, the use of the pedal at appropriate times, and articulation problems that may arise in legato/non-legato, fingering, and accents. Accents should not be so overpowering that they obscure the articulation of the sixteenth notes in the left hand. Pauses should be small in duration, making very few breaks in tempo. In addition, performers must use their interpretive abilities by means of rhythmic nuances (Russell 2003). The performer must also be aware of the changes in texture and character.

Increased knowledge regarding the structure of the piece and the inflection of folklore will benefit the performer’s technical abilities when playing or performing this piece. For instance, the ability to recognize the guitar chords will allow for improvement in performance practice, such as avoiding traditional phrase shaping (Russell 2003). Awareness of the contrast in character between the second theme in the Allegro marcato will allow the performer to play in response to the corresponding exposition.

“Ginastera‘s music reflects the Argentine characteristics of energetic rhythms, captivating lyricism and colorful folk elements. He produced three operas, two ballets, six concertos, two pieces for vocal/choral orchestra, and numerous chamber/instrumental pieces. Several of the fifty-five works he composed stand as landmarks of Latin-American artistic creation and along with the Mexican Carlos Chávez and the Brazilian Heitor Villa-Lobos, Ginastera has earned a place among the greatest composers of the twentieth century” (Alberto Ginastera n.d.).

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