Correlation Between Sexual Harassment and Gender, Research Paper Example

Description of the Problem

There has consistently been a large problem of sexual harassment incidents in the United States and in foreign nations.  Specifically, the workplace is a common setting for sexual harassment incidents to occur, and most often subject women as the common victims of such actions.  Sexual harassment and gender bias in workplace has been has been a point of contention and debate for a long time.  Physical and emotional damages impact the victim’s ability to properly perform work-related duties and often lead to punishments or restrictions of duties (Marican, 1995; Russel, 1984; Fitzgerald, 1993).  However, due to the increased social resistance to oppression and legalized equality, discrimination and sexual harassment have become a highly punished crime in the workplace.  Nevertheless, human resource personnel lack the ability to properly predict future sexual harassment incidents and provide a large prevalence for sexual harassment in the workplace still to this day.  Throughout this chapter, this study and the scope of the problem will be clearly defined.  The purpose of this study is to help create a basis for possible causal factors of incidents by evaluating a possible correlation between sexual harassment and gender.

Problem Definition

The current correlation between sexual harassment and gender is unclear and is the basis for this project.  Roughly 11,731 sexual harassment charges were filed in 2008, which resulted in over $47.4 million in fines and reparations (EEOC.gov, 2009).  Very little research and academic information exists to evaluate any existing correlation between these two variables in the workplace.  Given the extent of the issue, it is clear that the social, economic, and corporate environments lack a complete understanding for the potential causal factors of sexual harassment as they may be interrelated with gender biases and cultural definitions of gender role responsibilities.

Statement of Purpose

The purpose of this project is to accurately and efficiently determine any possible correlation between the variables of sexual harassment and gender.  Through literature review and social surveys, this study will seek to clearly define these variables as they are interrelated within the workplace.  The correlation must clearly be defined and understood in order to help resolve the social and economic problems associated with sexual harassment and gender in the workplace.

Setting of the Problem

Although sexual harassment is a large issue in many settings, the specific setting for this study was corporate and business environments.  These settings are not limited in terms of this study and have been defined as any place where business is conducted.  By devising a broad setting, this study hopes to analyze a much wider scope of the issue to clearly define and analyze the correlation between sexual harassment and gender in the workplace.  It is important to clarify that these environments are not limited to an administrative setting; they can also involve restaurants, medical facilities, and any other place where formal, legalized business of any kind is conducted.

History and Background of the Problem

The word sexual harassment was conceptualised in 1970, although the actual concept existed well before.  During this time period, there was a strong upsurge and vocal protest about sexual harassment and its potential negative effects on individuals and the working environment.  A group of women changed the dimension and gravity of protests in face of such behavior.  One such example of the extent of this issue in the 1970s comes from the case of Lin Farley.  Farley found that as she taught a course at Cornell University in 1974, she found that she found that many of her students had left jobs because of the behavior of men in the work place (Patai, 1998).  In 1978 Farley published Sexual Shakedown: The Sexual Harassment of Women on the Job, which ultimately became the first step toward action on the issue.  Catharine MacKinnon then published The Sexual Harassment of Working Women in 1979, which proposed the argument that sexual harassment was a form of discrimination that violated the provisions within the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Patai, 1998).

In her book, Farley made her point clear that sexually aggressive men had transformed the workplace environment into an intolerable, unhealthy and unproductive atmosphere.  The sexual harassment movement gained momentum when Carmita Wood, a 44-year old assistant, working in the office of a Cornell physicist fell ill and had to abandon the job.  She revealed the fact that the continuous advances from her boss made her susceptible to depression and filed for unemployment compensation in Ithaca, New York.  She reaped the first seeds of revolt and exposed the forum, where such immoral activities could not only penalise the offenders but also compensate the victims. Thus, during the 1970s, courts began to decipher and implement action as for pre-existing laws that prohibited gender bias in employment to bar sexual harassment of workers.  Unfortunately, as it is has been previously mentioned the number of sexual harassment cases filed in 2008 was still quite large and shows that this issue is still a major factor in the workplace environment today.

Scope of the Project

Due to the extent of sexual harassment incidents that still exist to this day, this report seeks to focus on the gender issues that correlate with such incidents.  The research will focus on sexual harassment and gender in the workplace, and clearly define these variables as they appear to be interrelated.  According to the data from 2002-2003 National Organizations Study, this paper interprets how gender composition leads to the incidence of sexual harassment.  Preliminary observation reveals a positive and discrete increase in the cases of sexual harassment with the increase in the proportion of women to men in the workplace.  The questions being asked throughout this study include 1. Are women or men more likely to be the victims of sexual harassment?; 2. Is organizational power or job responsibility associated with sexual harassment among different genders?; 3. What stereotypical gender definitions exist that may act as causal factors for sexual harassment?; 4. What cognitive issues exist among men or women that force them to engage in sexual harassment behaviors despite the clear definition of human resource policies and state or federal law?

The purpose is to understand the conditions and situations that lead to such behavior, as well as the overall correlation between sexual harassment and gender.  Gender categorization and limited social views towards ‘inferior’ individuals have increased the prevalence of sexual harassment in the workplace.  This analysis will critically examine these variables and the environmental and culture factors surrounding them to ascertain an understanding of why as much as half of working women have reported experiencing sexual harassment at some point (Fitzgerald et al., 1997).  These activities affect the psychological makeup of the women workers and can lead to depression, suicide and even gross losses of financial assets for the company.

Importance of the Project

Due to the large prevalence of sexual harassment in the United States work environments, it is clear that information must be determined to help calculate possible causes of these incidents.  This study focuses on the correlation between sexual harassment and gender in an effort to define a potential causal factor for businesses and human resource personnel to apply to work procedures and policies.  By being able to possible predict future sexual harassment incidents, administrators may be able to take qualitative steps to ensuring that the causal factors are addressed and removed to ensure a healthy and productive work environment.

Definition of Terms

In order to properly understand the information throughout this project, a list of terms and has been defined:

• Gender – the sexual orientation or physical appearance of an individual
• Sexual harassment – any negative act that attempts to demean, bemoan, or restrict the ability of an individual to perform actions based on the victim’s sex.
• Civil Right Act of 1964 – a bill passed by the United States government regulating the restriction and discrimination of individuals based on race, sex and religion.

As this chapter has clearly shown, the extent of sexual harassment in the workplace has continued to exist as a large problem for individuals and companies in the United States.  Very little information directly addresses the correlation between gender and sexual harassment.  This study attempts to focus on the correlation between these variables to draw appropriate conclusions for human resource personnel and business professionals to predict possible occurrences of sexual harassment based on gender definitions, stereotypes or positions of power within an organization.  Another factor that will attempt to be briefly discussed during this project will be the cognitive processes by which individuals utilize to justify sexual harassment behaviors despite potential punishments described within company policies and state or federal law.  To further advance this project, a review of the available literature on this correlation will ensue and should provide ample information for direct field analysis and surveys of society.

Literature Review

History has shown a many great problems that have existed within the workplace for issues of sexual harassment and gender equality.  The data that exists indicates that harassment is degrading, frightening, and sometimes physically violent; frequently extending over a considerable period of time; and can result in profound job-related, psychological, and health-related consequences for women in the workplace (Fitzgerald, 1993; Fitzgerald et al., 1997; Vijayasiri & Herring, 2006; Richman et al., 1999).  The purpose of this chapter is to analyze past research and findings on the correlation between sexual harassment and gender in the workplace to clearly define the issue and specify the correlating factors surrounding these two variables.  More commonly than not, instances where women have been sexually harassed by men are viewed for their prevalence of gender stereotypes and existence within the workplace (Stein, 1999; Welsh, 1999).

Legal Concerns in the Workplace

According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), sexual harassment is a form of gender discrimination that is in direct violation of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.  In 1998, the U.S. Supreme Court made employers more liable for sexual harassment of their employees (SexualHarassmentSupport.org).  Legal action can now be taken upon the employer for allowing sexual harassment to exist within their work environments.  This forces many employers to engage in strict human resource practices that specific a sexual harassment policy and actively works to eliminate the prevalence of sexual harassment towards any person of any gender within the work environment.  Moreover, the Society for Human Resource Management has reported that 62% of companies now offer sexual harassment prevention training programs, and 97% of all companies have a written sexual harassment policy (SexualHarassmentSupport.org).  Within the previous chapter, the relationship of the Supreme Court verdict in Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc. was thoroughly discussed that expanded the definition of a hostile workplace and was a pertinent example for future defendants to win sexual harassment suits.  These landmark cases and statistics help set the forefront for the problems associated with sexual harassment and gender in the workplace today.

Furthermore, Benson and Thomson (1992) showed that women in various occupations and institutions have taken legal action in response to sexual harassment or the repercussions of failing to comply with the sexual demands of male superiors.  In these scenarios, evidence showed that women become the victims within the workplace by either being forced to become subjected to sexual harassment, or they become victimized when they stand up to themselves against male superiors that have made sexual passes or implications upon the women employees (Gruber, 1998; Marican, 1985).  In Fiscal Year 2008, the EEOC received 13,867 charges of sexual harassment, where 84.1% of all charges were filed by females.  The EEOC resolved 11,731 sexual harassment charges in 2008 and recovered over $47.4 million in monetary benefits for charging parties and other aggrieved individuals, which does not include monetary benefits obtained through litigation (EEOC.gov, 2009).  This resource shows that not all cases of sexual harassment charges are from women.  There were 15.9% of charges that were sent and filed to the EEOC that were by men, which leads us to believe that there is a growing prevalence for sexual harassment towards males based on gender or sexual preference.  Although the evidence does not state purposes for sexual harassment toward men, it is clear that the problem does exist on both spectrums of the gender barriers and is still a major issue with women being the victims.

Male Dominancy and Prevalence of Sexual Harassment

Benson and Thomson (1982) further provided findings for the prevalence of sexual harassment at universities that has a cumulative effect that erodes the commitment levels that women have to their careers when they experience male-dominated work environments.  Within their research, women were questioned about sexual harassment behaviors in the workplace.  The results of these questionnaires and interviews showed that over 30% of women reported having received unwanted sexual attention from at least one male instructor during their four years at college (Benson & Thomson, 1982).  These results are specific within the educational environment where male professors at the collegiate levels become the culprits of sexual harassment behaviors upon female students.  Although this study currently focuses on the prevalence of sexual harassment and gender within the work environment, it is important to understand the high percentage of women that become victimized prior to graduation from college and entering the work force (Patai, 1996).  The researchers have claimed that sexual harassment in courses by male professors force women to carefully monitor and try to avoid new instructors that harass them, and sexual harassment can often force women to lose their academic self-confidence and become disillusioned with male faculty (Benson & Thomson, 1982).  These results may clearly have a correlating impact on women as they enter the workforce and begin to operate with male superiors or co-employees.  A destruction of self-confidence or disillusionment prior to entering the professional work environments can lead to a precursor to inappropriate actions or perceptions of sexual harassment.

Based on previous research and theory, Gelfand et al. (1995) proposed a study that examined the correlation of sexual harassment factors such as gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion.  The researchers further tested these factors and analyzed them simultaneously within three populations that were randomly selected from the United States and Brazil to examine the cultural implications of sexual harassment in the workplace.  The results showed large percentages that suggested that males were more likely to use their stereotypical domination of women to force sexual harassment upon their gender counterparts.  This further supports the belief that male dominancy has a direct correlation upon the prevalence of sexual harassment, especially within the confines of the male-female relationships within the work environment.  These stereotypical positions of power often tend to continue to mold the beliefs and actions of men despite the legal ramifications for inappropriate behavior in the workplace or the growing change of the stereotypes within social perceptions.  Therefore, it is safe to assume that males continue to use their physical presence as a basis for supporting the right to sexually harass women and neglect any understanding of possible punishments or inappropriateness for their behaviors (Konrad & Gutek, 1986; Marican, 1985; Gelfand et al., 1995).

Gender and Sexual Harassment

While the prevalence of sexual harassment has been clearly described from statistics of the EEOC and myriad lawsuits that exist every year, this study continues to search for an active correlation between gender and sexual harassment in the workplace.  Much of the previous research has shown that there is a high percentage of cases where sexual harassment in the work environment is committed against women.  It is important to note that although 84.1% of sexual harassment claims to the EEOC were charged from women, this does not include statistical information of sexual harassment incidents that were not reported.  This figure may indeed be much greater than previously stated.  However, within an organizational climate, job gender is a critical antecedent of sexual harassment, which consequently influences work-related variables such as job satisfaction and motivation, psychological states such as anxiety and depression, as well as overall physical health (Fitzgerald et al., 1997; Riger, 1991; Williams et al., 1999).  According to the results of Fitzgerald et al. (1997), evidence has showed that there exists a clear relationship of sexual harassment when women have male superiors.  Meanwhile, other evidence has suggested that men are growingly becoming the victims of sexual harassment mostly by other men (EEOC.gov, 1999; Einarsen & Raknes, 1997; Rotundo et al., 2001).  This finding clearly shows that men are statistically more likely to commit sexual harassment upon women and now some cases of men within the work environment.

On the other hand, much evidence examined that the role of power within the organization has a direct impact on the sexual harassment of women even further.  Through a study performed by Cooper (2009), results showed that nearly fifty percent of women supervisors reported sexual harassment in the workplace.  Furthermore, women supervisors were 137% more likely to be sexually harassed than women who did not hold managerial roles.  Meanwhile, as supervisory status increased the likelihood of harassment among women, it did not show any points of significance upon the likelihood of sexual harassment for men.  This adds another factor to this discussion to determining and defining a correlation between sexual harassment and gender in the workplace.  A position of power tends to draw much attention toward a woman, rather than a man, and can cause much greater prevalence for women to become the victims of sexual harassment.  This is often believed to be the case because women of power do not follow typical gender stereotypes, and feelings of contempt, jealousy and inferiority build up within men that force them to search for an outlet for their feelings.  Unfortunately, these feelings tend to be taken out on the woman that is in the position of power and the superiority-inferiority definitions of employment positions are no longer considered.  Instead, men choose to react to their feelings negatively and force the woman with a position of power to become the victim.

Through examining this correlation from another perspective, it may be possible to draw a greater understanding for this correlation between sexual harassment and gender in the workplace.  Many people consider this to be an issue between fellow co-workers or employees and managers.  However, one study has examined the prevalence of sexual harassment from patients upon nurses in the medical field.  Many academic professionals would compare this analysis of the issue to that of a customer sexually harassing a business worker.  Oftentimes, this is seen in the dining services industries where waitresses of all ages are sexually harassed by male customers.  Returning to the issue of sexual harassment in the nursing profession, several studies have been conducted to indicate factors or risks associated with sexual harassment of nurses.  Results have shown that female gender, job title, level of experience, length of employment, physical-care duties, and traditional stereotypes relating to female nurses are central factors associated with sexual harassment of nurses (Hibino et al., 2008).  In many cases, the results of this study shows that patients oftentimes commit sexual harassment against nurses that have higher job titles or responsibilities, which is similar to the previous discussion of women holding positions of power.  In this case, however, the level of education that a woman has can often be used as a factor that can influence men to commit sexual harassment against female nurses, which stems from the belief that intelligence and power intrigues the sexual libido of the male.

Conclusion

While the prevalence of sexual harassment within the workplace is very clear, it is often the case that men sexually harass women in greater instances than vice versa.  Consequently, this is supported by the cultural stereotypes of male dominancy over women.  In many cases, women that hold positions of power are much more likely to become sexually harassed than woman that do not hold such positions within the work environment.  This suggests that there could be a behavioral trend for men to fight the growth and advancement of women in the workplace and consciously, or subconsciously, work to keep women in a lower position than themselves.  However, this study also recognizes that men also sexually harass other men based on social position and sexual preference; although very little research supports this claim for the purpose of sexual harassment by men against other men.  It is also important to observe that very little information exists for men being the victims of sexual harassment by women.  Nevertheless, it is clear that there is a negative correlation between gender roles and sexual harassment within the workplace.

Further research must be performed in order to gain a deeper appreciation for the negative causes and effects of sexual harassment in the workplace.  Gender must be viewed as a correlating causal factor for sexual harassment behaviors.  Furthermore, it is necessary to examine the unclear thought process that causes individuals to commit acts of sexual harassment despite the clearly-defined punishments by the legal system and the employer.  It almost appears as though individuals neglect to consider these negative consequences for inappropriate behaviors when performing the acts of sexual harassment in the workplace.  A cognitive relationship between cultural positions of power and male dominancy may override the logical thought processes that would otherwise restrict such behaviors.  As it has been declared, almost 14,000 cases of sexual harassment were reported to the EEOC in the fiscal year of 2008, which makes it clear that this is not a non-issue and must continue to be carefully examined by further research.

The research within this study thus far has definitely helped us gain a deeper appreciation for the factors that can lead to a growing prevalence of sexual harassment in the workplace.  Unfortunately, very little research actively correlates the variables of gender and sexual harassment as they interrelate with one another, which makes this study very appealing for its infancy in the academic community.  Additional research should be conducted in order to gain a further understanding of this correlation between the two variables.  The greatest piece of literature that garnered much information came from Hibino et al. that was the only piece of literature that examined sexual harassment from an alternative point of view.  This study helped shine light on the relationship of the customer or patient, with the employee or the nurse professional.  All other literary works included a summary of findings where sexual harassment existed between co-workers or between employees and managers and vice versa.  Hibino et al. provide a different perspective that helps draw the cultural and social stereotypes to the forefront of the issue.  In this scenario, no legal ramifications from the company are hindering customers or patients from sexually harassing employees; therefore, there must be another factor that can hinder this action besides legal action taken in court by the victimized employee, themselves.

Perhaps there is a greater moral code that is inherent within each of us that states that sexually harassing another individual, regardless of the reasoning, is morally wrong.  Unfortunately, evidence suggests that many people do not consider a moral code or legal ramifications when committing acts of sexual harassment upon ‘inferior’ individuals of opposite sex or social position.  The concept of demeaning women of power is also very intriguing in understanding the correlation between gender roles and dominancy as they relate to sexual harassment.  This research has helped us come to very clear conclusions on this issue that allows us to support the claim that additional research must be performed and there must be a clearly stated policy within the legal system and through social intolerance that does not allow sexual harassment to continue to negatively impact the victims within the workplace environment.

Research Methodology

Previous research and the state of the issue suggest a possible correlation between sexual harassment and gender in the workplace.  The hypothesis of this study states that there is a direct correlation between these two variables in the workplace, and it suggests that cultural gender biases are upheld in the workplace despite being unlawful and in violation of company policies.  Acts of sexual harassment in the workplace will be examined in this chapter.  The research method of this study included a survey of 25 individuals that will be randomly selected to determine correlative characteristics between the variable and seek to prove the previously stated hypothesis.

Data Description

The data within this study is comprised of a created survey that specifically focuses on the issues related to sexual harassment and gender in the workplace.  This study can be found in Appendix A of this report, and it contains roughly 18 questions to help categorize the surveyor as well as determine the prevalence of sexual harassment based on gender.  This survey was given to exactly 25 individuals between the ages of 18-50.  These individuals were randomly selected by the researcher from within businesses that exist in the local community.  The surveyors were asked to fill out the survey completely in direct response to all 18 questions.

Due to the complexity of the issue and possible geographical limitations, this study encountered selection bias issues.  The 25 individuals were randomly selected from various businesses in the local community.  With a limited number of subjects, bias was based on the local Mount Olive College community and the socio-cultural factors that comprise it.  In all, 17 subjects were female, eight were male.  Gender bias may have been an issue; however, as the previous literature suggested, a direct correlation of the two variables was more likely to be clearly defined with a larger female response.

Finally, another important bias inherent within the study concerns the first question of the survey ‘have you ever engaged in sexual harassment behaviors.’  Because many people do not wish to self-incriminate themselves, the accuracy of this question is likely to be effected.  All respondents will be clearly informed that the information is highly confidential and will not be used against them in any way.  However, due to the inherent serious nature of the question, the researcher is expecting not to receive accurate results for this analysis.  This question has been included to ascertain any possible cultural relationship between responses and cognitive processes that allow people to understand right from wrong.  It is important to note that none of the other questions have such a strong bias and will be fully included within the statistical analysis.

Variable Measurements

There are multiple variables present within this study based upon the results of the survey from Appendix A.  These variables include gender, age, race, occupation, and length of employment.  Gender describes sex of the surveyors, whether they are male or female.  As previously noted, 68% of respondents were female.  In addition to gender, the survey has intentionally created three age groups to categorize responses.  These groups are 18-24, 25-35, and 36-50.  There were eight respondents in the first group, twelve from the second group, and five from the third group.  To avoid inaccuracy within the results, older respondents above age 50 will not be included as they are within a much different generation with different cultural biases and gender roles.  Furthermore, the racial diversity of respondents were near equal as there were twelve African American, twelve Caucasian and one Hispanic.

Public opinion is also a variable that has been analyzed in hopes of determining how individuals believe sexual harassment relates to gender and which gender is stereotypically more likely to engage in sexual harassment behaviors.  This is also seen from the question ‘do laws deter sexual harassment in the workplace’ in which public opinion will be retrieved on the effectiveness of laws as a deterrent for sexual harassment.  Current research suggests otherwise, so this analysis will help to suggest a possible disparity in the research and public perception of the issue.

The occupation variable helps determine that individuals are currently employed, and a possible correlation between type of employment or positions of power can be shown through managerial or non-managerial cases of sexual harassment victimization in the workplace.  Similarly, length of employment has also been suggested as a possible causal factor of sexual harassment, and may also help in specifying positions of power that are inherent within the time period an individual has been with the company.  The two other obvious variables, of course, are direct sexual harassment victimization in the workplace or only observed occurrences.

Finally, the last remaining variables stems from questions surrounding the business practices of the organizations that respondents are currently employed.  The current policies of organizations have been analyzed, as well as the effectiveness of the manager as a deterrent factor for sexual harassment or a possible causal agent for promoting sexual harassment behaviors in the workplace.

Statistical Method

The statistical methods for data analysis involved mostly comparative mathematical functions that could suggest correlative relationships between gender and sexual harassment.  Ratios and percentages were calculated by adding survey responses for each question and performing a statistical analysis upon the results for each previously-mentioned variable.  Results were very glaring and emphasized a strong correlation between sexual harassment and gender.

Table 1 entitled “Survey Results” clearly show the respondents answer to sexual harassment victimization from Appendix A.  There were 13 female responses, of a total 17 female respondents, that claimed they had been the victims of sexual harassment.  On the other hand, none of the eight male respondents claimed they had been a victim of sexual harassment.  Due to the inherent bias of sexual harassment engagement behaviors, these results have intentionally been left out of this analysis.  It is clear that 77% of female respondents claim to have been the victim of sexual harassment in the workplace.

As previous research suggests, length of employment and positions of power tend to have a direct impact upon women becoming victims of sexual harassment in the workplace.  Unfortunately, this tendency was not statistically valid enough to be supported through survey results.  Of the three ‘no’ responses for females, each was African America, Caucasian and Hispanic; therefore, race cannot be considered a causal factor for sexual harassment in this study.

Only three respondents had viewed instances of sexual harassment in the workplace.  Furthermore, public opinion within the survey was very one-sided for both questions where this variable was found.  All of the 25 respondents claimed that women were more likely to be sexually harassed than men.  Similarly, 23 of the respondents claimed that men were more likely to engage in sexual harassment activities than females.  It is important to note that the two contrary respondents were Caucasian males.  Finally, respondents were split almost even with no statistical relevancy to suggest that laws or company policies are deterrents for sexual harassment behavior.  This neither supports nor refutes the information suggest within the literature.

Nevertheless, the information supports the research hypothesis that females are more likely to be sexually harassed than males.  Previous mention within literature of male sexual harassment victimization was not supported within this survey, but that does not suggest that it does not exist.  Public opinion also supports this hypothesis as a typical cultural activity.  This study does not attempt to explain causality of sexual harassment, except as it relates to gender.  Further research should be performed to draw more appropriate conclusions for legal and business considerations.

References List

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