Cultural Imperialism, Research Paper Example

Introduction

The concept of cultural imperialism is the practice of transferring a culture of one society into that of another. Cultural imperialism occurs when often there exists a military connection or colononization. Perhaps a good example being the inclusion of India into the British Empire before it gained its formal independence.  Modern day arguments against cultural imperialism are projected at the way western societies manage to dominate the media and control this to influence other countries; often towards democratization and adoption of western values. This particularly relates to the materialistic aspect of society and creating a culture of envy in less fortunate third world countries.  The media is also responsible for creating cultural stereotypes and as such branding a cultural identity on countries. A great example of this is the Somali pirates; people now see Somali people as a desperate people who have resorted to piracy in order to make a living.  “Cultural Imperialism Theory states that Western nations dominate the media around the world which in return has a powerful effect on Third World Cultures by imposing n them Western views and therefore destroying their native cultures. ”  (Schiller).

Cultural imperialism has also gained in popularity in recent years. This has been attributed to globalization and the pressures / demands that this imposes upon society.  There has been a ground swell in supporting nationalization and a return to traditional values. ” it also has brought into focus the power of culture in this global environment-the power to bind and to divide in a time when the tensions between integration and separation tug at every issue that is relevant to international relations”  (Rothkopf).

Theoretical Aspects

The theory behind cultural imperialism gained prominence in the 1970’s. It provided the momentum for creating a new world order of communication and world information through the auspices of the United Nations and the cultural wing of the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). ” Cultural imperialism proposes that a society is brought into the modern world system when its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping its social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating center of the system”  (White).  Several authors have defined their own views on cultural imperialism. The most accepted view is that put forward by Schiller (1976) where he proposes: ‘ that a society is brought into the modern world when its’ dominating situation is attracted, pressured or forced in the shaping of social institution to promote values and structure of the dominating centre’  (White).

There are a number of critics that have illustrated what they believe to be a series of weaknesses in the theory. These have included the following:-

• It lacks explanatory power and needs advances beyond that of pure description ( Ogan 1988)
• It may be expressed in statistics but it is difficult to measure (Ogan 1988)
• It lacks conceptual precision (Lee 1988)
• It lacks the ability for audiences to process and interpret messages based upon individual background (Liebes and Kate 1990)
• The theory is not steadfast in all situations ( Sinclair, Jackie and Cunningham 1996).

There are other advocates for the promotion of cultural imperialism. People like that of ‘Rothkopf’ argue the case in favour of the United States, in modern society, under what has been termed  ‘The American Model’.  Rothkopf states ” The United States should not hesitate to promote its values – Americans should deny the fact that in all the nations of history of the world, theirs is the most just, the most tolerant and most willing to consistently assess and improve itself and is indeed the best model for the future”  (Bernd Hamm).

American Cultural Imperialism

” Cultural imperialism is a very old phenomenon. For centuries, countries imposed their cultural values on other nations. Today, as a global economic and political power, the United States is inevitably intruding into the cultures of other countries of the world. Some believe that the American’s spread of culture is beneficial to the entire planet, while others consider this cultural imperialism a threat. ”  (Sévenier).

The propagation of American culture to the rest of the world has been a lot less brutal than that of the period of European colonization.  Where previously it was geared towards the sustainment of empires and imposition of cultural change; the US is far more benevolent by nature and is concerned more with human rights and freedom of expression amongst different countries.  There are a large number of countries that undervalue the contribution of women and try to suppress the human rights and dignity.  America has tried to promote the rights of equality, freedom and democratic rights for all.  This has been aimed more towards that of choice and the ability to influence others and that this is a proper path and model to follow.

Irving Kirstal  stated that the American people will one day realize that the US has become an imperial power a and that many nations have welcomed this; wishing  to aspire to the modern democratic values put forward by the USA.  The USA is a multiculturalist society and as such, it puts forward a model of successful multiculturalism. The  US equally recognized that democracy has been won at a  very high price and try’s  to assist other countries or nations in avoiding some of the pitfalls.  The concept of lessons learned by example.

Some opposing views see American democracy as  infringing upon their own cultural values  and identity; particular regions of the Middle East, where there are added religious dimensions  with Islamic society.  Many look upon the West and its allies as a Christian club that has a hidden agenda of reformation of the more fundamental values of Islam.  This has been compounded with the West and its allies associated with the Zionist views of Israel.  In many regards, this has  created for much of the instability in the area and a lack of reconciliation, particularly applicable in the Israeli-Palestinian land rights conflict.

In the context of US cultural imperialism.  It has been stated that the US has two prime goals.  [1] economic, and [2] political.  On the economic front.  It wishes to market and sell American products overseas and promote American culture.  The goods associated with entertainment have been outpacing manufacturing goods in this regard.  The political agenda is one in the promotion of democracy and American ideals.  The media being a powerful tool in helping to achieve these ends.  It has been argued that the political agenda creates cultural change and to disassociate people from their cultural roots and values.  It creates an alienation between the class structure and dissolves community bonds.  The counter-argument being that you cannot arrest progress and modernity.  People  have a human right to the latest technology and consumer goods.  Regardless of whether it offends religions or societies.  Cultural imperialism has been linked with capitalism and creates class distinction between those who can afford the benefits that this provides another less fortunate poor people who cannot take advantage of the benefits.” Cultural imperialism focuses on youth not only as a market but also for political reasons: to undercut a political threat in which personal rebellion could become political revolt against economic as well as cultural forms of control.”  (Petras).

Historical implications

One of the earliest examples of cultural imperialism was that the extinction of the Etruscan culture and the rise of the Roman empire.  The Greeks also promoted cultural imperialism and spread their culture throughout the Greek empire.  In the 19th century, many of the European nations carved out empires or dominions throughout the world and this included Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Spain and Portugal.  During this period, the Russians expanded their territories within the concept of the Soviet Union and commenced instilling Russian cultural and political ideology on those countries.

Religion has also been used as an instrument to achieve the objectives of cultural imperialism and the best example of this being the book of common prayer in 1549.  This was used to promote the use of English as a common language and to suppress the use of other languages.  It replaced Latin with English and had a hidden content of suppressing Catholicism.  This type of event had been reciprocated in the Arabic world with the Islamic Qur’an has been maintained in the Arabic version translated into other languages.

The impact on Western Imperialism

In reality the era of western imperialism died at the end of the 1st World War. Prior to that the major European powers laid dominion over the rest of the world. The Europeans had placed their footprints on virtually every corner of the world. After the war the European colonial empires crumbled and they relinquished their hold on countries that quickly aspired to national identity and independence.

Perhaps it might be argued that the Middle East has suffered more at the hands of Western imperialism than many other regions of the world.  Iraq had attracted British attention as early as 1798, and by the 1850s it was trading extensively across the region.  In the 1900s, the vast majority of the ships trading and calling into the Iraqi port of Basra were British.  It was in the late 19th century when the first nature discovery of oil took place in the Middle East.  Britain marked out Kuwait as a strategic partner.  It was  no coincidence that BP was originally called the British Iranian Oil company.  By 1970, Baghdad was under the occupation of British colonial rule and British forces controlled most of Iraq.  In 1916, Britain and France decided on what needed to be done with the Arabic colonial territories and the frontiers were being drawn up between Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.  Iraq first gained independence in 1932 when it gained a seat in the league of Nations.  Britain hoped that a strongly Iraq  would preserve its influence in the region.  In June 1961 Kuwait ended its agreement with Britain, and declared its independence.  This became hotly contested later on in Iraq, under the Saddam Hussein regime,  who  believed  the colonial powers occupied  Kuwait with the express purpose of getting cheap oil.  The 1970s saw the transition apparently Middle East away from the British and Europeans towards that of the USA.

Impact of Globalization

It was Tomlinson who stated that globalization is just an extension of cultural imperialism.  It is the major powers that utilize the power of the media to broadcast their message in order to influence cultural change in developing and vulnerable nations.  The concept is not always aimed at the Third World or developing countries, an example being how the USA has influenced cultural change of direction in the UK.  Technology and the Internet undoubtedly played a huge part in developing global culture around the US.  It is interesting to note that the top five users of the Internet are  America [25%], China.  [11%], Japan  [8%], Germany  [6%], UK [4%]. ( Source Internet world statistics 2004.)  From this it can be readily seen how America dominates the Internet and is able to influence the rest of the world through the Internet giants like Microsoft.  Google and Yahoo etc.  The rapid development of the Internet, media technology and communications enable  corporate America to reach a large customer base and focus its marketing on a truly  global scale.  The Internet has developed into a huge global shopping mall with the ability to get goods and services distributed throughout the world.  China sees the danger of how Western society may influence cultural change in that country and therefore proposes censure the regulations of Internet usage.  This term has been criticized for not allowing human rights and freedom of information.

The concept of globalization from a cultural perspective has been viewed in a negative light.  It has been readily associated with the destruction of cultural identity, the encouragement of Western culture and the vehicle for Western cultural imperialism.  “Cultural identity, properly understood is much more the product of globalization than  its victims” (Tomlinson)

Tomlinson argues that the nature of globalization proliferates role that destroys cultural identities.  This seems to resonate a degree of truth, because after all individuals have  a choice in terms of how they interact with the media and technology.  They can take the best that this has to offer chose to reject the  worst elements of it.  People ought to decide through freedom of choice and expression.  Even in places like China where they try to restrict the flow and source of  information it  creates a resistance movement that seek to subvert it a seek out the truth.

This brings into play, the concept of modernity and the more complex view of globalization.  It examines social and cultural practices from the context of local particularity.  This type of cultural penetration is by the use of items like television, mobile phones, e-mail and the Internet.  It is the tasteful new and exotic consumer goods.  The most threatening aspects of globalization are where there are identity challenges to the nation state.  This translates into violence, ethnic and religious confrontations with the nation state.  As recently witnessed in Eastern Europe states that the collapse of communism in the Balkans.

The lesson from history is that cultural imperialism by construction of empires and dominion over others, is to say the least a transitory state.  Empires come and go and the footprints left behind often enrich the nation state.  Great Britain has received numerous conquests from the Saxons, Romans, Normans etc. This in turn resulted in the small nation having one of the greatest colonial empires on Earth.  This in turn has eroded, similar to the dominions created by its European neighbours of France, Spain, Holland and Portugal. All have evolved and now they seek to amalgamate and create a common European identity.

Works Cited

Bernd Hamm, Russell Charles Smandych. “Cultural imperialism: essays on the political economy of cultural domination .” Bernd Hamm, Russell Charles Smandych. Cultural imperialism: essays on the political economy of cultural domination . Toronto On: Broadview Press, 2004. 303-482.

Petras, James. Cultural imperialism in the late 20th century . 23 8 2004. 3 5 2010 <http://www.williambowles.info/guests/cultural_imp.html>.

Rothkopf, David. “In Praise of Cultural Imperialism.” Foreign Policy, Number 107, (1997): 38-53.

Schiller, Herb. “Communication and Cultural Domination.” Schiller, Herb. Communication and Cultural Domination. White Plains, NY: International Arts and Sciences Press. , 1973.

Sévenier, Gaëlle. “Freedom of expression .” American Cultural Imperialism: Gift or Threat? . New York, 2004.

Tomlinson, John. “Globalization and Cultural Identity.” Tomlinson, John. Globalization and Cultural Identity. Ulster: University of Ulster, 2004. 270-276.

White, Livingston A. “Reconsidering cultural imperialism theory .” Transnational Broadcasting Studies (2001).