Depictions of the Afterlife, Essay Example

Depictions of the Afterlife as Expressed through Performing Arts in Various Cultures

Culturalistic rituals depicting the afterlife can be seenwithin a variety of cultures throughout history. Many of these rituals incorporate various forms of performance art as a means of self-expression and spiritual discovery. As the quest for a deeper connection with a higher power is a motivating factor in ritualistic performances and ceremonies, artistic expression through spoken word, song, dance and theatrical showcasing may be an attempt to promote feelings of a deeper connection with a higher power and the souls of the deceased. Offering visual insights into the soul through artistic communication may allow perceptions surrounding the afterlife to be viewed as factual components of a living soul that continues to exist after being separated from the physical body. Performance art can capture feelings of grief, uncertainty, and hope in such a way that allows its viewers and participants to feel a sense of “oneness” with God. Although the perception of “God” may vary from culture to culture and belief systems surrounding the afterlife may differ, perceptions of a higher power, hope for an afterlife, and the need to express one’s self through various forms of artistic expression is relevant in almost every culture.As this paper examines the history of the performing arts and the ways in which it was used to refer to a higher power and the afterlife, a variety of cultures and time periods will be used to reflect the political and religious implications surrounding each time period and culture.

Roman View of Afterlife through Performing Arts

Although the Ancient Romans had a blurry view of the afterlife, they did believe in continuation after death (Edwards 6, Kyle 130). Ordinary citizens of Rome believed not only in the rewards and punishments that one would receive for his deeds but also in a connection between the dead and the living (Kyle 130). Thus, Romans traditionally believed that the spirits of the dead could help or threaten in one way or another, and that the dead may return in the form of ghosts, spirits or demons to hunt the living. These beliefs were reflected in funeral ceremonies as well as in the performing arts and cultural manifestations that characterized the pre-Christian Roman society.

According to Kyle (30), the magic custom of cursing enemies by writing their names on tablets and dedicating the tablet to a demon reveals a prevalent belief in the power of curses and the existence of demons. The author further indicates that invoking the dead to punish their enemies through the use of tablets was very frequent in Ancient Rome.The powers of these curses as well as the power of dead spirits interfering with the living were undisputed by the great majority of the population.  However, the dead were not only believed to interfere in human activities in the shape of spirits, but also as gods.

In the play “Apocolocyntosis”, a political satire on Emperor Claudius written in 55 CE by Seneca the Younger, an important Roman belief appears, namely, the deification of emperors after death. According to this belief, emperors reached the level of the divine after death thus being able to protect and to continue to care for their Empire even in death. In his play however, Seneca mocks this belief according to which all emperors became gods, regardless of their character:

“Whereas the divine Claudius is by blood related to the divine Augustus and no less also to the divine Augusta, his grandmother, (…) I move that from this day the divine Claudius be a god, with title equally as good as that of any one who has been made so before him, and that this event be added to the Metamorphoses of Ovid” (Seneca the Younger 9).

In this belief, one may easily notice both the influence of the vulgar, who accepted the identification of the emperors with the divine as a testimony of their superiority and of their perpetual connection with the living population, as well as a political tool by means of which the obedience of the population was enhanced. Moreover, in the divinization of the emperor, one can notice the same type of belief regarding the dead as in the case of spirits, namely, connection between the two worlds and continuous influence of the dead over the living.

These two important concepts come to justify the need of spectacular burial ceremonies, which often included musicians, dancing satyrs (Sumi 549), mimes and professional mourners, all of whom had the role of honoring the dead through their performances. Sumi offers, in his article, an extensive analysis of these practices, focusing on the mimes’ performances. The mimes’ role was that of impersonating the dead, by adopting his gestures and facial expressions, were chosen to resemble the deceased and wore masks reminding the family of him (563), with the purpose of bringing him back to life in this manner.  According to Sumi (582-583), the carnival flavor of the roman funeral resembled the public life of the empire and reflected the taste of the Romans for public manifestations. However, there is a different type of signification which may be attributed to this manifestation.

Edwards (19) explains that the funeral procession also included family members wearing the masks of the deceased’s distinguished ancestors. One of the family members had the role of reminding the audience the deeds of the dead as a manner of honoring him and of giving him as an example. Indeed, the secondary role of the spectacular funeral, with its masks and musical performances, was that of producing an impression on the young Romans, so that they may be ambitioned to earn their own afterlife praise. Thus, in Edwards’ words,  the young Roman dreamt “to secure the place of his own imago in the funeral pageant of his descendents, to come to life again each time one of them is laid to rest”(20).  As in the case of spirits and apotheosis, the main purpose of the funeral was to ensurethe revival of the dead.

Although Roman society had strong beliefs in the afterlife and the manifestations of these beliefs were included in the performance acts of the time, there was no clear picture of what happens to the soul after death. Various interpretations included the transformation into spirits, or the elevation to the divine, in the case of emperors, as well as revival through impersonation. These beliefs and rituals demonstrate that the Romans believed in a perpetual connection between the dead and the living, and refused to accept death as a complete and final rupture from the material world.

Zoroastrianism Perspective of the Afterlife Expressed Through Performing Arts

The word monotheism derives from the Greek word theos – which means god and mono-which means one. Unlike polytheists who believe that there can be more gods than what they themselves worship, monotheistic religions are exclusive in that they deny existence of gods of all other religions (Nosotro).  Zoroastrianism, which is present in modern day Iran, is of the earliest forms of monotheism and has been said to encompass components of traditions of both Eastern and Western religions. Although Zoroastrianism is considered a monotheistic religion in the fact that all worship, in the form of good thoughts, good deeds, and good words, is towards Ahura Mazda, the faith also acknowledges other divine entities, recognizes lesser nature-spirits, and recognizes the holy nature of the elements (online lectures). As strong elements of dualism can be seen within the Zoroastrianism religion, the understanding that good will always triumph over the forces of evil is apparent throughout the traditional practices of the Zoroastrians. The Zoroastrians believed that the deity Ahura Mazda, who protects asha (wisdom and truth), was manifested in Ahura Mazda’s twin brother AngraMainyu, who is responsible for all druj (evil) (online lectures).

Zoroastrians believe that God created the spiritual world before he created the material world. Fire, water, earth, and air should be kept pure by not allowing evil entities, such as the dead, to enter into these sacred elements. Beliefs of the afterlife and the sanctity of these four elements are reflected through traditional burial practices. According to Zoroastrian belief, the sanctity and purity of the body is lost as soon as the spirit is removed. Traditional burial practices of the Zoroastrians involve placing the bodies onto “Towers of Silence” and allowing them be consumed by vultures. As the body leaves the soul, the Zoroastrians believe that the spirit will remain near the body for three days until being led off by the guardian spirit, Daena. The spirit is then greeted with a vision of the thoughts, words deeds, and actions performed while on earth, where it is then decided whether the spirit should be placed in heaven or hell for temporary residence until the final judgment day (Jayaram 5).

As Zoroastrian views of the afterlife reflect am emphasis on good triumphing over evil, ritual chants through spoken word is believed to establish order and purity in the lives of the living. Manthras or sacred verses from religious texts are chanted in a particular manner in order to please God and the other spiritual entities.  Chanting manthras is viewed as practicing the three commandments, which are namely good thoughts, good words and good deeds. Performances of sacrificial rituals, called Yasnas, are used to purify the earth and the people within it. These rituals are usually performed by qualified priests to the accompaniment of chants, and performed inside a fire pit. Scriptures emphasize the importance of maintain ritual purity while performing the rituals. Each day, five prayers are offered throughout various parts of the day in order to ensure the best possible results. An initiation ceremony, called the Naujote, is also performed before young boys and girls are inducted into the Zoroastrian path (Jayaram 11).

The views of an afterlife in the Zoroastrian culture encompass a belief of fate after death being dependent on individual life choices. The Zoroastrians were the first culture to specifically relate the morality of an individual’s actions in life to their fate after death (online lectures). As it is believed that the human consists of an immortal body and soul, free will allows each individual to determine where the soul will remain. Although ritualistic practices, performance chants and ceremonies are viewed a sacred means of communication with God, it is through the thoughts, deeds, and actions performed while living that a Zoroastrian’s fate date will be decided.

Performing Arts in Baroque Christianity

During the late middle-ages, a growing concern about gaining entrance into Heaven through the abolishment of sins set the way for a break from the traditional theologyof the Catholic Church. Salvation through grace, rather than through good deeds and prayers as advocated through the Catholic Church, threatened not onlythe Catholic Church’s teaching regarding entrance into heaven, but it also threatened the power and authority established throughout Europe. As numerous European countries denounced Catholicism and no longer acknowledged the authority of the Pope,the Protestants entered into a century-long war to secure their right to practice their faith.. In response, the Catholic Church launched the “Counter-Reformation” public relations campaign in attempts to recover Protestants. Hundreds of churches were created and renovated in Baroque stylearchitecture and art in attempts to portray a physical manifestation of heaven within the church walls (online lectures).

As Protestants established a belief system that taught new visions of the afterlife and new rituals relating to death, the existence of purgatoryprayer to expedite one’s entrance into Heaven and the importance of saints were replaced with a distinct separation from the living and the dead (online lectures).As the Protestants rejected the use of images and statues in worship by replacing worship with emphases on the worship of Christ without physical manifestations, the musical trends associated with worship also changed and evolved to reflect a new belief system. “As the Protestant Reformation swept across Europe, those who rebelled against Catholicism cast their new forms of worship in opposition to the Catholic Mass—including its music” (Dawson 2012).

The Gregorian Chant consisted of “liturgical music of the Roman Catholic church consisting of unaccompanied melody sung in unison to Latin words” (Gregorian Chant 2009 ).Gregorian chant was traditionally performed at the mass and the canonical hours (the eight prayer services traditionally held daily in monasteries). Its texts come from the biblical psalms, metrical hymns, and texts specific to the mass and the hours. “The melodies are classified as belonging to one or another of the eight church modes. Chant rhythm is not strictly metrical, and its notation does not indicate rhythm” (Gregorian Chant 2009 ). Protestant composer challenged the Catholic Church in thefield musical performance, which pressured the Catholic Church to make changes in its music. The Protestant cantata, motet, passion, or oratoryrivaled the Catholic chant and mass. “Instrumental andorgan music began to play a more important role in the Catholic Church at theexpense of the monastic chant” (Vaubel 14).  Most musical composers produced for both the courts and churches. Competitionfrom and among the churches was spurred by the Reformation. However, competition between the Catholics and the Protestants seems tohave been less important for the rise of Baroque music than competition among thecourts (Vaubel 14).

The Baroque era gave birth to new forms of performing arts, such as drama, ballet, and opera. As theater played a vital role in the rivalries and power struggles between European courts, rulers vied to outdo each other in the magnificence of their productions. “In France theatre and opera also became a key element of Louis XIV’s (reigned 1643–1715) cultural policy, used to control the nobility and add to the propaganda of the “Sun King” (Secular spaces and the Baroque 2012). Throughout Europe, public celebrations were used to signify the national and international political implications of the Baroque era.  “Rituals such as a coronation or state funeral marked regime change, while celebrations of royal birthdays and marriages, military victories and visits by foreign dignitaries, drew attention to new developments in the nation’s political life” (Secular spaces and the Baroque 2012).

Baroque history offers a glimpse of the social and political implications surrounding religion and performance arts in music as a form of worship. Performance of sacred music within the Catholic Church was relegated to professionals who could understand its elaborate polyphonic structure. However, Protestant reformers feared the power of music to influence and distract, so they entered the notion that church music must serve the words, which were believed to be the words of God. The psalms were used as protest songs in the battle between Catholicism and Protestantism.Singing in the church led to singing of religious songs in the house. This gave rise to songs sung in private prayers.”It was Protestantism that replaced polyphony in sacred music with the vocal divisions that are still in use today” (Dawson 2012). The Catholic Church, however, still holds traditions of Old Testament Psalm tones. The Catholic Church encouraged and commissioned many of the great artists)and composers, such as Bach, Handel, and Haydn, whose works are admired and used to this day (Flynn 2008).

The Movement of Romanticism as seen through the Performing Arts

Protestant views on religious purity heavily reflect distain for religious imagery as a depiction of the afterlife. As the North American colonies sought to leave behind the religious conflicts of Europe, separation of church and state provided the opportunity for freedom of religious expression. As a series of national tragedies swept through Europe and America, focus on the afterlife once again became relevant and the need for traditional Christian imagery was reinvented. Prior to the Age of Enlightenment, depictions of the afterlife often focused on traditional Christian representations of Heaven and hell. The rise ofProtestantism inEurope inspired a new approach to art as Protestants sought to define their identity by rejecting the focus on visual arts,which was a central tenet of Catholicism (online lectures).

Although the Age of Enlightenment continues to have an impact on western culture, focus on emotion and inspiration became central to the Romantic Movement, which took root in the late eighteenth century. Asartists sought to explore the range of human emotion in the visual and literary arts, inspiration from nature, patients of mental institutions, medieval art and architecture, and ancient myths were used to over exaggerate the expression of human emotion (online lectures). Emphasis on emotional expression had a major impact in music and literature during the romanticism movement. Romanticism transformed poetry, the novel, drama,
painting, sculpture, concert music, opera, and ballet. “It was deeply connected with the politics of the time, echoing people’s fears, hopes, and aspirations” (Brians 1).

Religious writers during the romantic era, although still inspired by Biblical themes, adopted the same freedoms of their musical and artistic predecessors. Faust, which is fictional literature depicting God and the devil as major characters and angels and demons as supporting players, have inspired manygreat artists and musicians during this era (Brians 10). Romanticists had interest in the medieval literature, such as epics, ballads, and otherforms of folk literature, and were characterized by rich imagination, strong emotion and free expression. As society was viewed as corrupt, nature became a primaryfocus, which was believed to be a source of inspiration and goodness. “Literature took the full force of Romanticism, which brought forth a full flowering of literary talents” (The Rise of Romanticism 5 ). Many of the great literary works and poems were turned into sermons and hymns and used in funerary practices as an expression of grief, anguish, and praise to a higher power. The artistic and literary works of William Blake were also influential during the romantic era. Many of his works, such as “The Marriage of Heaven and Hell,” were used to satirize oppressive authority in church and state.  Blake’s “Songs of Innocence and Experience,” can be described as two complementary but also conflicting states of the human soul. ‘Innocence’ and ‘Experience’ are not abstract qualities or concepts, but active forces, persons, even gods, which manifest themselves in all human, natural and supernatural life” (Songs of Innocence and Experience N.p.)

The romantic era brought forth artistic freedom, creativity, and experimentation. New forms of music, such as the symphonic poem, were used in orchestral works to portray stories. The opera became increasingly popular, as it continued to musically tell storiesto express the issues of the day. Composers would frequently incorporate themes involving escape from political oppression, fates of national or religious groups, and events that were taking place in faraway lands (The Romantic Era N.p.) Religious music had reached the height of popularity and was not considered a dominate form of music during the Romantic era. Church music was like an oratorio; it employed large choruses, an orchestra, and solo voices. Although liturgical texts and psalms were set to music as a method of acknowledging God and the spiritual being, these works were more often used as festival works for concert performances rather than for functional church music (The Romantic Era N.p.).

As new revolutions sought to change political divisions, innovative art forms reflected these changes through the exploration of human emotion. Thespirit of nature became intertwined with the traditional Christian values of the afterlife, which was replaced with an individual approach to spirituality. The rejection ofthe visual imagery that was central to the Catholic Church would once again reappear in attempts to reflect the political implications and the spiritual quests of the Romantic Movement. As depictions of the afterlife were intertwined with individualism and traditional religious views, the artistic trends of the romantic era would continueto influence the modern views of the afterlife throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries (online lectures).

Throughout history, hope for continuation after death has been the leading force in man’s attempts to connect with a higher power. As artists strived to turn spiritual perceptions into physical manifestations of reality, the concept of life after death is validated through visual and auditory concepts as seenthrough music, art, performance, and spoken word.The need to express one’s self freely through artistic interpretation may be heavily influenced by the desire of the imagination as it attempts to distinguish hope from reality. Performance art can capture the imagination, fuel inspiration, and provide comfort during times of grief; turning feelings of hopelessness into anticipation for eternal life. Although each culture may have varying opinions and belief-sets regarding the concept of God, the need for belief in the soul’s eternal existence offers every culture a sense of hope, purpose, and a lasting connection to the souls of the deceased.

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