Different Functions of the UN Human Rights Committee, Research Paper Example

Introduction

The United Nations stand to be today’s strongest international organization that aims to protect the most essential considerations of countries around the globe especially in connection with their security. True, every nation has its own set of laws designed to align its national operations based on the clauses of human rights and other protective protocols that intend to provide each individual with an equal chance to success and good life. However, the high consideration over the differences of nations especially when it comes to their traditions and culture often questions the integrity on how each nation define themselves along with the clauses outlined in the international code of human rights. To make sure that there is a form of uniformity in applying the different rules that are included within the clauses of human rights provisions, the United Nations Organization has created a committee that would oversee that these provisions in the international and individual scale are being properly recognized. This committee has been known as the Human Rights Committee[1] which is currently functioning as an overseeing Committee that corresponds to the needs of those nations that are having a hard time compelling within the guidelines of the international human rights especially when it comes to being compromised with their beliefs, traditions and culture.

The need to protect each person’s right to life and security is one of the most important aspects of responsibilities that the UN Human Rights Committee takes into account. Nevertheless, the focus that the organization has upon this cause is not as easy as it does seem to appear. It involves dividing the organization’s operation into several functions, incurring several procedures that would account for the fulfillment of their mission and creating several systems that would allow them to become more aware of what is happening around their scopes of territories and responsibilities. Taking on a great responsibility involves a great deal of control and authority that is vested to the committee through the direction of the United Nations[2]. Nonetheless, the success of the operation of this organization would only rely on its capability to successfully define the boundaries that separate international laws from cultural traditions hence aiming to balance the effect that both elements have in providing a greater line of distinction when it comes to implementing the rules of human rights.

The culture of internationalization has further given power to the said committee to hold fast to their role in making a demanding impact on how their responsibilities would affect the lives of those individuals or groups of communities that are considered vulnerable for oppression. True, globalization has opened so many doors from improvement and worldwide development. However, it could not be denied that alongside these developments comes the creation of the different doors towards oppressing the less privileged members of the society. To specifically hope to control such occurrences, it is very important that the concerns of every party involved should be given attention to. In the aim of doing so, the UN Human Rights Committee stands to be the provider of a system that would make it easier for cases of possible imbalances in the society to be resolved[3]. Although it is recognizably hard to define the line between law and culture especially when it involves international relations, the common value that exists between all these differences are expected to have a greater impact on how the society and the administrators of each nation shall entail to apply the different rules indicated in the laws that bind the human rights guidelines.  Seeing to it that the said “common value” which is in consideration with the “respect to life”[4], the UN Human Rights Committee could be considered to be among the most important wings of the United Nations Organization operations that affect the relationship of nations from all around the globe and even the social stability of nations and societies within their own midst. In the discussion that follows, a deeper understanding about OHCR or office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Committee that it takes control of shall be better defined. Through understanding what the committee stands for, what it hopes to fulfill and what functions it embraces at present, the worth of this organization in preserving the protection that must be provided towards individuals as well as collective groups of international organizations shall be better given attention to.

What is the Human Rights Committee?

Definition

The Human Rights Committee is understood to be an organization of different independent experts who oversee the distinctive application of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights by those who are enjoined within its umbrella of control which includes the state parties that are considered its members[5].  In line with the main purposes of the United Nations to encourage respect and camaraderie among nations that have signed up to become its member, the said organizations agreed to adopt a single and unified form of Universal Declaration of the human rights law [based on an individual perspective]. It was a form of the basic rights that one is regarded to have the right to have. It was rather described to be a form of definition of the most common needs and provisions that human individuals need to convene with; it was supposed to become a common and respected form of the standard law that requires one to respect the other [baseless of what country one belongs to]. It served as the common ground of a law that defines a person’s capability to become respected based on his or her being human as it is.

The said declaration of rights opened up the door towards recognizing two particular umbrellas of freedom and respect which are noted as the civil and political rights of an individual. These two umbrellas however were better defined through a series of branches that indicated the specific issues that most human individuals are involved with in line with their role as citizens and the rights they ought to pursue in line with their being a part of a nation. Five primary treaties were then formed. These treaties included the:

International Convention of the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination of 1965; Convention of Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women of 1979; Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment of 1984; Convention of the Rights of the Child of 1989 and the Protection of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families of 1990. [6]

Observe how these treaties where formed alongside the years of development hence responding to the growing needs of protection of the target population who are deemed specifically vulnerable to the different changes happening around the globe. Take note though that in line with the responsibilities and roles that the UN Human Rights Committee takes into account, it is only responsible in overseen International Covenant on Civil and Political rights which at some point includes some clauses from the five primary treaties of human rights as mentioned above.

Objectives

It is the primary objective of this UN’s unit of operation to create a standard form recognition when it comes to the political and civil rights of an individual no matter what country that person belongs to. It could be analyzed that with the desire to establish a ground of commonality among nations amidst the differences they have in culture[7], it is the desire of the organization to make a defined indication on what needs to be provided to make sure that an individual’s rights do not go overlooked just because of the existence of a particular tradition or national belief that binds the said society. Giving each individual such sense of protection makes a stronger essence on the existence of the committee.

Mission

Setting social balance in the midst of differences among nations and among cultures is the primary focus of the responsibilities in line with the operations of the said branch of United Nations Organization. It could be analyzed that amidst the many changes that the culture of globalization insists on the modern society, the committee hopes to set a sense of standard application that merits each national administration to recognize the worth of each individual in line with their right to freedom and the capability to become successful in life.

In line with the political issues that are considered essential especially in consideration with the idea of controlling the authoritative power of officials handling the needs and demands of a nation, especially focusing on how they are able to contend with their sworn public responsibilities. UN-HRC is an organizational unit that performs investigative operations in consideration with the need to provide constant assistance directed to the integrity of the implementation of human rights especially regarding the concerns of the more vulnerable members of the society. Through this, it could be analyzed that UN-CHR does create a relative indication on how a well developed country should be able to make a definite course that would allow its people to become the best that they could be especially in line with the desire of establishing good social relations between individuals amidst their personal and cultural differences. The balance in the society that the UN-HRC hopes to impose is specifically directed towards giving a shell of protection especially when it comes to giving security to those who are likely to be easily oppressed. The existence of the UN-HRC strengthens the integrity that the international proclamation of human rights hold steadfast in coordination with the role that they take as a specific organization that would provide a more responsible vision on how the rights of human individuals should be respected and recognized by nations in a balanced international perspective as set by the United Nations Organization and the UN-HCR as its organizational unit[8].

Meetings and Procedures

The UN-HCR is a general assembly that has forty-seven seats that are supposed to be taken by at least 18 members and/or representatives[9]. These representatives are given the chance to expand their contribution in the process of reassuring the course of the implementation of human rights law in each country around the globe. The organization does implicate a set of different internal systems that assure the integrity of its hierarchy. It could be realized that it is with these sets of laws that the organization’s administration is able to make sure that its members are able to fit the requirements that are needed to remain in union with the desire to fulfill the different objectives of the United Nations.

In line with the need of creating effective overseeing systems that would likely make a considerable turn in assuring that the rights of every individual is properly respected, the UN-HCR operates in two particular forms, the complaint procedure and the special procedure. The complaint procedure is the primary regular operation that the organization undertakes in consideration with the course of preparing different options that are bound to make a definite impact on how human rights laws are respected in consideration with the political and civil recognition of such lawful provisions for freedom and opportunity dedicated towards mandating the course of life that one ought to take. To note, the complaint procedure considers two hierarchies of operative system authorities. The Working Group on Communications (WGC)[10] which serves as the organization’s connection to its members and the particular complaints that they may have especially in line with the clauses of the declaration of human rights. The other operating administration is that of the Working Group on Situations (WGS)[11] which serves as the receiver of cases and the investigators once a particular case has been proven valid and definitive.

The WGC is specifically a busier branch of this operational procedure as it is the one accepting the cases while having the responsibility to evaluate such reports in line with their validity for investigation. Constant entrant of cases from all over the globe becomes the primary focus of the operation of this unit. Once the cases are approved for investigation, only then shall the role of the WGS come into action. This is the reason why WGS committee members only meet twice a year to address approved cases for investigation. Only then shall they actually give attention to such issues and resolve the said cases within a specific given time.

The other procedure, which is the special procedure, involves the inclusion of several experts who are expected to address special cases that particular nations undergoing specific social chaotic situations face. At present, there are four specific working groups under this unit of operation. The said groups include the Working Group on People of African Descent, Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances, Working Groups on the use of Mercenaries to Impede the Right of People to Self-Determination[12]. Take note that each group hopes to address the most controversial issues that are currently affecting the society. In line with the desire to help the different societies embrace the impact of modern global living, the UN-HCR’s branch on such working groups try to mend the broken lines that make it hard for human rights benefits to be realized by certain groups of individuals in the society at present. Take into consideration that the representatives enjoined in the special procedures take on different specific responsibilities. It is further imposed that such individuals are experts in their own fields which are directly connected to the different elements that make up the integral application of the clauses of human rights. Some of the positions that the special procedure members take are as follows:

• Special Rapporteur on New Communications who is intended to handle the incoming compilations of new complaints[13].
• Special Rapporteur on Follow-up Views who is intended to monitor the implementation of the decision of the committee especially involving individual cases[14].
• Special Rapporteur on Follow-up Concluding Observations who is expected to create procedural reports regarding the new individual state party reports that are supposed to be considered by the committee for both current and future references[15].

The procedural operations are applied by the UN-HCR in recognition to their responsive agenda of making a good balancing commonality among nations that would protect the rights and the being of individuals who are striving their best to respond to their roles as civilians of a nation proves to be the core value that the organization adheres to. It should be considered however that the members of the UN-HRC are considered as individual members of the organization. Although they stand as representatives of their country’s concern, they are expected to be non-political which means they are not in any way adhering to particular political policies of their own countries hence rendering their service and existence with the committee a biased one; an element that ruins the integrity of the group. Respectively, the members of the committee are expected to have a remarkable connection with the desire of the said organization to create a link that balances each nation’s recognition of the provisionary clauses of the international declaration of human rights. The need to be unbiased is a special requirement for those who are to enjoin the function of the committee. This would allow the entire group to become more objective in completing the roles and the responsibilities that they are expected to respond to. Notably, with the recognition of such requirement, the more effective the implementation of the role and responsibilities of the organization would be hence benefiting the greater cause of its existence. At this point, it could be analyzed that such procedures are undertaken by the organization in consideration with their need to completely adhere to the functions that they are supposed to fulfill. Such functions shall be further discussed in the section that follows.

The Different Functions of the Committee

The UN-HRC specifically derives its authority from the power given to it by the idea that its members represent the world as a whole and not separately as nations. Unlike the overall operation of the United Nations, UN-HRC tries to create a boundary-less consideration on how the rights of the people are being recognized around the globe as a whole[16]. In this regard, it accounts strongly for its moral function to provide the members of the society with their needed course of protection especially when it comes to protecting their rights as members of a growing and developing community of global brotherhood. In this section, the four primary functions of the committee shall be better defined hence indicating the primary essence of the organization’s existence as an operating unit of the overall function of the United Nations in line with the goals it hopes to fulfill for all nations around the globe.

Monitoring of the Proper Implementation of Human Rights Law and Regulations

This responsibility of the UN-HRC specifically includes the need to receive and examine report from state parties in line with the step-by-step implication that they have especially in line with the desire to effectively implicate the clauses of human rights. This is specifically in consideration to how the states included within the UN-HRC monitoring territories administer laws that assures their adherence to the covenant. Each state is then required to submit an annual report regularly. The said reports are designed to help the UN-HRC identify the strengths and the weaknesses of the governance procedures embraced by a particular nation. It also does provide a workable connection between UN-HRC special experts in possibly addressing some of the weaknesses of an administration and further strengthening the process by which they apply the proper ways of public governance.

The function of the UN-HRC in line with this report is to evaluate the current state of governance that a particular member of the organizations is administering among its public subjects. The evaluation shall then intend to manifest a defining core that could form a suggestive feedback to some states that are in need of assistance and advice [especially to those having particular difficulties in addressing specific social issues such as discrimination, high rate of unemployment among specific vulnerable members of the society and other issues that contradicts the rightful application of the human rights law].

In compiling a good report, NGO’s are specifically considered to contribute well in the process especially concerning the compilation of specific statistical data that are used as reflective indicators of the government’s integral role of protecting its people’s rights amidst its political endeavors[17]. There are no specific guidelines or rules as to how NGOs are supposed to contribute, nonetheless, their involvement in the process has been believed to have a good impact on the creation of a more definitive report that is unbiased and balanced.

To practically observe and evaluate the contents of one report, the UN-HRC undergoes two consecutive sessions. The first session involves the appointment of six committee experts to go over the content of the report; the said group is noted as the Country Report Task Force of the CRTF. From here, the CRTF members shall draw the line that defines the list of issues that are arising in a country based on the given reports. After which, the results are to be presented to the representatives of the states along with the recommended solutions to the issues. Referencing from past experiences and effective rules of defining the transformation of the modern society from its traditional roots, the committee sees to it that its clauses of defined assistance are to be given particular attention by those who are concerned.

Providing Insights and Comments on the Different Articles of the Covenant

Another function of the committee is to provide comments and explanations on the different clauses that make up the covenant hence improving the analysis of each element making up the said set of law. The covenant is noted as general indication of rules which may have different [yet closely related] meanings based from one country to another. To make sure that each clause of the covenant is properly implemented in each country, it is essential that each representative provide his own comment upon the issue especially considering his own country and the culture that it follows. The whole body of administrators of UN-HRC also provides a general interpretation of some of the issues being addressed by specific guidelines written in the set of laws that the organization adheres to.

Consideration of Individual Complaints

Individual complaints are also given particular attention by the organization. This is especially if the cases presented by those involved are valid for trial and investigation. However, there are specific requirements that must be considered by the complainant in furthering his or her case to the committee. A complainant must have strong and visible and/or tangible evidence in line with the complaint that he or she is presenting to the committee. This will make it easier for the evaluators to specifically identify the case to be valid for investigation. Once evidences have been presented and approved for investigation, the case shall be resubmitted to concerned state hence alarming them to give attention to the issue at hand. Follow-up procedures are then to be undertaken hence making sure that the complaint does not only go into file but shall receive due attention and resolution.

The complains could either be judged to be in favor or against the complainant based on the given evidence and the supporting statement from the state officials to whom the case has been assigned to be resolved. This is the reason why it is very important for a complainant to make sure that hard evidence accompanies the complaint that he or she presents to the committee[18]. The span of time allotted for each case is based upon the considerable depth of the issue being responded to.

Evaluating Inter-State Complaints

Every state has a responsibility towards another. This rule creates the very essence of global camaraderie that is prompted by the growth of the implication of the different elements making up the assumptive functions of globalization. The obligation of one state towards another may involve both political and civil responsibilities. The first process is to provide evidence that one state is not able to fulfill its obligation towards the other. It is essential that each case comprises of the fact that the other state [to whom the complaint is being directed to] knows about the responsibilities that it is obliged to compel with. In line with this, there should be an agreement between the two states that holds them responsible for such indication of obligations. If it has been made clear that the said parties do have responsibilities towards each other, it is essential to note that both parties try to resolve the matter on their own first [perhaps in the form of creating a new treaty or finding ways to meet up the possible shortcomings on such written or sworn obligations to the other]. Understandably though, there are instances when no domestic procedure seems to work to make the values of the parties involved meet. This is where the committee’s responsibility enters the scene. The committee shall in its best capability try to resolve matters in a friendly manner whereas the two parties are to be given the chance to work out the differences of their values on their own[19].

However, in the instance by which nothing is resolved after applying all the necessary procedure noted above, the committee shall appoint five experts to handle the case which shall be recognized as the conciliation commission. To retain the unbiased integrity of the committee, it is expected that the five-person case appointees would not include anyone that may come from any of the state from which the two parties are involved with[20]. The case investigations and proceedings are usually given up to 12 months to complete the entire approach to clearing the issue.

How the UN-HRC Impacts the General Quality of Living

Remarkably, the UN-HRC’s existence provides a better chance for those who are considered vulnerable towards oppression to experience better ways of living than what the society actually puts them through. In line with the four tasks or functions that the committee assures to complete, the said unit of UN organization’s function provides four primary aspects of social ease to the different members of the society as they try to enjoy their civil and political rights in their own countries. The said four aspects include:

• Maintaining the integrity of the laws as they impose the recognition of the rights of individuals and social groups as they define themselves alongside the society that they are living in.
• Withdrawing or amending measures that are usually not connected to the relative application of the covenant rights that the committee strictly adheres to.
• Taking progressive action when particular clauses of the law have not been given proper attention to hence marking the line from which the other parties who are seemingly oppressed become less benefited by the human rights law.
• Creating new innovative amendments on the current provisions of the human rights law depending on what the current social circumstances call for.

With these provisionary effects, the organization is indeed able to make a definite stand in retaining the integrity of the human rights law through imposing a more effective system that shall generally oversee the implementation and application of such lawful guidelines within an international scope of effect. The important matter of providing everyone the rightful chance to enjoy life is what makes the organization more responsive in addressing its responsibilities towards the public.

Election of Members and Its Impact on the Functions of the Organization

As mentioned earlier, there are particular seats allotted for specific representatives from different regions of the world that ought to be filled in by the different candidates from all over the globe. These seats allow the candidates to take their position and handle it for at least two-consecutive terms if they wish to; although no one is allowed to remain in the position beyond two consecutive terms of taking the responsibility of being a representative.

There are particular considerations focused upon when choosing the right representative of each region to take on the responsibility of taking care of the position, its privileges and its sanctions of responsive conditions of understanding their role as protectors of human rights not only for their people but for the whole world as well. These procedures of choice and election are specifically guided through the three points of concern. One is that of the understanding that the state has upon the requirements of the UN-HRC and how these requirements ought to be responded to. Another is the background of the country when it comes to imposing the laws and regulations regarding human rights. It is very important that the country from where the representative shall come from adheres to the specific conditions of practically defining the importance of human rights in their region. This is in reference to the principles noted in resolution 5/1 annex section 1A of the scope of international obligations indicated in the documentation of the “basis of review”[21].  The third consideration pertains to the practical knowledge and understanding that the representative individually has over the responsibilities of the UN-HRC as a group and him or her as an individual who is part of the organization. To sum it up, the appointment of representatives rely on these core bases:

1. Expertise
2. Experience in the field of mandate
3. Independency
4. Impartiality
5. Personal integrity
6. Objectivity

In the process of choosing representatives, the administrators of UN-HRC also recognize the need to remain defined through the importance of gender balance hence retaining the integrity of the organization when it comes to remaining stable against gender-discrimination among its members. The UN-Human Rights Committee is then expected to prepare and maintain a periodic list of eligible candidates within a standardized format of reporting. The Secretariat on the other hand shall provide the technical and objective requirements that the candidates shall be asked to fill in[22]. The information provided by the candidates shall then be kept for future references. The establishment of the consultative group would then be provided hence giving them the responsibility to propose the beginning of the session to the President within the span of at least one month earlier than the target schedule[23]. Those who were given the opportunity to choose from the list of candidates ought to act and decide upon their own conditions of understanding the process and their personal intuition on how the matter should be duly handled.

The unbiased way of choosing the representatives helps the UN-HRC remain integrally far from being noted as a politically controlled organization. The importance placed upon the members being non-members of any political parties makes it more balanced especially in handling political conflicts in certain regions of the world. Considering the expertise and experience that the representatives have when it comes to imposing the proper points of human rights makes the process even more convincing to be based upon the desire of setting world balance when it comes to the recognition of human rights around the globe.

Possible Suggestive Improvements

Operational Recommendations

The operational operations of UN-HRC could be considered solid and strong. Nonetheless, it could be more effective if it did include a specific consideration on the non members of the said unit such as that of nations undergoing social chaos hence holding particular victims of the non-recognition of the proper elements that make up the human rights law. This would stretch the authority of the organization hence being able to provide better protection to those who are in dire need of their assistance.

Organizational Suggestions

The need to make sure that the involved individuals in the organization should be free of political-bias should be improved hence imposing a more remarkable process of screening out the members in line with their portfolio and their expertise in the field of imposing the clauses of human rights in an international approach. What makes the organization free from devastating effects of bias is its retained belief that its members should be impartial especially in handling cases that are crucial to national security. It is then believed that with the strengthening of the stability of such integral characteristic of the organization, UN-HRC would be able to serve the public and its best interest through good and proper administration of the law unblemished by any particular political agenda.

Conclusion and Summary

Every individual has the right to live and to enjoy life at that. With the current situation around the globe today, it could be realized how sometimes, that right to life and enjoyment is somewhat hard to recognize. The establishment of a separate unit that oversees the instance by which the rights of human individuals are properly addressed around the globe is an important aspect that does not only strengthen the role of the United Nations in exacting peace and security among countries of different cultures and traditions, but it also paves the way into a more organized and satisfying society.

The current role of the UN-Human Rights Committee serves as a protective policing committee that sets its path apart from the political agendas of the world. Hard as it is, the organization tries to adhere to its valuable consideration of impartiality. Assuring that its members are free from any political concerns, the organization hopes to provide an integral provision of freedom to the most vulnerable members of the society hence protected them and their rights to life and enjoyment. Supporting the mission of the organization does not only involve international camaraderie, but a great deal of cooperation from the administrators of countries from around the globe.

True, remaining untainted from the impacts of political control over their decisions is an important aspect of the UN-HCR’s reputation. The trust that is given to them by the nations and the subjects of individuals who seek their attention and protection are at some point considered to have a great impact on how they are to likely establish future recognition of human rights in an international scope. With the retaining process of neutrality on the part of the committee, it is expected that human rights shall be handled by the organization in a more impartial manner as it does today. This aspect of remaining neutral could be assured only through the assurance of the election and choosing of the representatives to be purely non-political in nature.

References:

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Ankerl, Guy (2011) Relativity of human rights (Sacha Journal of Human Rights, Sept. 2011, 14-36.)

Anstis, Sebastian and Zacher, Mark (June 2010). “The Normative Bases of the Global Territorial Order.” Diplomacy and Statecraft 21: 306-323.

Barsh, R. (1993). “Measuring Human Rights: Problems of Methodology and Purpose.” Human Rights Quarterly 15: 87-121.

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Ball, Olivia; Gready, Paul (2006). The no-nonsense guide to human rights. Oxford: New Internationalist.

Bayefsky, Anne (21 March 2011). “The UNHRC: Hard at work condemning Israel”. Jerusalem Post.

Chauhan, O.P. (2004). Human Rights: Promotion and Protection. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.

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[1] Civil and Political Rights: The Human Rights Committee. Fact Sheet Number 15. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet15rev.1en.pdf. (Retrieved on January 9, 2012)

[2] Civil and Political Rights: The Human Rights Committee. Fact Sheet Number 15. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet15rev.1en.pdf. (Retrieved on January 9, 2012)

[3] Civil and Political Rights: The Human Rights Committee. Fact Sheet Number 15. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet15rev.1en.pdf. (Retrieved on January 9, 2012)

[4] Donnelly, Jack (2003). Universal human rights in theory and practice (2nd ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

[5] Forsythe, David P. (2000). Human Rights in International Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. International Progress Organization.

[6] Civil and Political Rights: The Human Rights Committee. Fact Sheet Number 15. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet15rev.1en.pdf. (Retrieved on January 9, 2012)

[7] Donnelly, Jack (2003). Universal human rights in theory and practice (2nd ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

[8] Donnelly, Jack (2003). Universal human rights in theory and practice (2nd ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

[9] Doebbler, Curtis F. J (2006). Introduction to international human rights law.. Cd Publishing.

[10] Ball, Olivia; Gready, Paul (2006). The no-nonsense guide to human rights. Oxford: New Internationalist.

[11] Ball, Olivia; Gready, Paul (2006). The no-nonsense guide to human rights. Oxford: New Internationalist.

[12] Chauhan, O.P. (2004). Human Rights: Promotion and Protection. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.

[13] Chauhan, O.P. (2004). Human Rights: Promotion and Protection. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.

[14] Chauhan, O.P. (2004). Human Rights: Promotion and Protection. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.

[15] Chauhan, O.P. (2004). Human Rights: Promotion and Protection. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.

[16] Barsh, R. (1993). “Measuring Human Rights: Problems of Methodology and Purpose.” Human Rights Quarterly 15: 87-121.

[17] Abouharb, R. and D. Cingranelli (2007). “Human Rights and Structural Adjustment”. New York: Cambridge University Press.

[18] Abouharb, R. and D. Cingranelli (2007). “Human Rights and Structural Adjustment”. New York: Cambridge University Press.

[19] Anstis, Sebastian and Zacher, Mark (June 2010). “The Normative Bases of the Global Territorial Order.” Diplomacy and Statecraft 21: 306-323.

[20] Ankerl, Guy (2011) Relativity of human rights (Sacha Journal of Human Rights, Sept. 2011, 14-36.)

[21] Donnelly, Jack (2003). Universal human rights in theory and practice (2nd ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

[22] Donnelly, Jack (2003). Universal human rights in theory and practice (2nd ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

[23] Civil and Political Rights: The Human Rights Committee. Fact Sheet Number 15. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet15rev.1en.pdf. (Retrieved on January 9, 2012)