Discourse of Revolutions in Europe in the 19th Century, Research Paper Example

History has taught the world that freedom is attained through resilience and determination. Where the ruling administration is adamant to enact the change that people need, revolutions have been effective. The French revolution and the First World War are that major events in that formed the European revolution in the 19^th Century. The French Revolution that emerged in 1789 had its immense effects in Europe for several subsequent decades[1]. On the other hand, the diverse trends based on the transformation of the European society led to the beginning of the First World War. Since the inception of French Revolution and the First World War, the European continent experienced a set of processes that made it what it is. During the transformation phase of Europe continent, the associated nations were perceived as a united as well as a divided nation. There were many fundamental cultural trends exhibited across the entire continent. The European states were immensely involved in diplomatic interaction that ended in the extensive alliance system after 1871[2]. During the European revolution, the continent observed a thriving nationalism where individual countries safeguarded their identities and established stricter boundary controls. Political liberalization and the Industrial Revolution are the major changes that spread throughout Western Europe, Germany, and Italy. Through the European revolution, the industrial revolution spread across the entire world, thus promoting the current advancements[3]. Exploring the European revolution by discussing the social/political uprising offers a better understanding of the essence of global revolutions of the 19th Century.

Definition of the Periods that forms the 19th Century History

The French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte occurred in the period between 1789 and 1815. After the French Revolution, there was a period of reactions and adjustments in Europe that took place between 1815 and 1848. Between 1848 and 1871, The European continent was dominated by a novel revolution system as well as the alliance of Italian and German nations. The age of imperialism followed between 1871 and 1914, which was modeled by novel forms of political debates and the forces that resulted in the war. Worldwide events that occurred between 1789 and 1848 are where the Europeans dealt with the political revolution forces and the initial effect of the Industrial Revolution[4]. A complete industrial society emerged between 1849 and 1914 that involved novel forms of states, military, and diplomatic alignment.

Social Disturbance

The fiscal transformation in Western Europe resulted in extensive social effects in the 19th Century. The fundamental aspects of life change and work continually redefined. In regards to the wage laborers, work independency declined, and most people operate under the supervision of others. The factory rules change with workers urged to be on time and stay on their machines. Women and children were extensively exploited while working in factories. Middle-class people started to fight for new work ethics in the region. According to work ethics, in the region, work was considered a fundamental human element[5]. It is through the populations’ perception of work that promoted the industrial revolution in Europe, thus promoting gradual modernization.

Political Uprising: The French Revolution

Western Europe experienced intense political transformation in the period of social and economic transformation. The French Revolution resulted in an integrated effort based on political reaction and reestablished series of revolutions from 1829-1848[6]. The association between the socio-economic and political transformation was real and complex. The economic grievances related to early industrialization resulted in later revolutions. Revolutions in the Europe emerged due to new political ideas.

The French revolution emerged in 1789 after numerous years of social unrest and political decline in the region. The philosopher and thinkers of the enlightenment age advocated that governments need to enhance ideas that benefit the entire population and not only focusing on the elites of the age. The philosophers of the enlightenment age were aggressive to the Roman Catholic Church political power and the aristocratic authority of the region. Based on the political status of the region, the solution to the ruling norms entailed outright democracy. The enlightenment writings were extensively spread across the region. The monarchy was in a dilapidating condition aside from the novel attacks as the finances were extremely pressed after the mid-18th-century war and the American Revolution[7]. The effort to restructure the tax policy was founded against the aristocracy opposition. On the other hand, the France groups were affected by social and economic changes.

The aristocrats wanted a novel political system against the royal power. The middle-class required a political voice to line up with their viable implication and an administration that is friendlier to their interests. The low-class majority who were affected by the increase in population needed access to lands owned by the church and aristocracy. Moreover, the peasant sought to terminate the manorial services and attain taxation relief.

The numerous challenges that affected the European population started being addressed when King Louis XVI christened the Estates-general in 1789 to deem new taxes[8]. Since 1614, the Estates-General had never had a meeting; thus, the calling liberated all the pressures of the previous years. The reform leaders, alongside some clergy and aristocrats, advocated that for the Third Estate to be granted a double share of church membership and aristocratic estates. The emperor accepted the changes that resulted to creation of a novel National Assembly. The uprisings that took place in Europe at the time include the figurative assail on the Bastille, and a sequence of proceedings that coerced a revoke of the enduring manorialism[9]. Consequently, the equality declaration under the laws was among the issues fought at the time.

Freedom of religion as well as that of press was promoted as a result of the affirmation of people’s right. As a consequence of the freedom, the lands owned by the church were taken, thus establishing enmity in the region. Unions were rendered illegal by the laws of the land in 1791 since the revolution facilitated middle-class beliefs in personal projects and liberation for technological transformation. Although the 1791 constitution maintained the monarchy, it established a powerful parliament endorsed by approximately half of the France adult men that owned property. Between 1792 and 1794, the European continent observed a radical period defined by economic deterioration, thus prompting fresh urban riots[10]. The Roman Catholic Church, alongside other groups, opposed the revolution leading to a coerced suppression and corresponding thrive that insisted on allegiance to revolutionary attitudes.

The royal families around from nations such as Austria, Britain, and Prussia confronted the threatened to invade the war, thus creating a situation for foreign war within the region by 1792. Under the regime of Jacobin, influential leaders assumed the ruling administration and declared a republic. The king and the previous leaders were executed. Centralization of the European government escalated, and the decimal system emerged. The perception of the government was that since leadership belonged to the population, then the people are obliged to serve the system with loyalty[11]. The novel constitution declared universal manhood suffrage and education reforms alongside other extensively discussed aspects.

Napoleon Bonaparte’s Revolution

Development of a strong dynasty was the main aim of Napoleon Bonaparte during his regime in France. Napoleon was in power for 15 years, and upon his regime termination, he has consistently moved to amalgamate his power, declaring himself as the emperor and drafted a novel aristocracy. The Napoleon regime annexed the regions in Western Germany and Low countries, applying revolutionary legislation to the maximum. Napoleon’s regime ensured the installation of the satellite kingdoms in other parts of Italy, Germany, Poland, and Spain. By 1810, Napoleon’s empire stirred enmity all over in which, a guerilla movement in Spain frustrated his forces.  Napoleon was later defeated in 1815 in the battle of Waterloo[12]. The regime of Napoleon resulted in confirmation of numerous revolutionary transformations within France. Equality was enacted in the region during the Napoleon ruling, and a powerful national administration recruited bureaucrats.

Revolution in Spain

The subsequent years following 1815 were quiet as most of the European nations were contended to observe peace and restoration of order after years of war and uprisings. However, the minority liberal-nationalists were innately dissatisfied and organized secret groups aimed at overthrowing the existing governing systems. The revolutions emerged in Spain, where King Ferdinand the seventh strictly followed the reactionary policy[13]. The determination of the King to overthrow the American colonies was increasingly becoming hopeless due to the costs of lives and money. At the beginning of 1820, the liberal officials sailed to South America and revolted on Madrid, claiming for a constitution. Although the revolution might have faced opposition ruling administration, the incompetence of the governing system allowed for the revolution to gain influence[14]. After the entry of the liberal officials in Madrid, the constitution was granted. However, the king secretly petitioned to the conservative powers to assist in overthrowing the constitution. A joint intervention by five alliances was endorsed by Alexander 1 of Russia. Lord Castlereagh, declined the suggestion with claims that the union had no authority to arbitrate against the revolution unless as long as it does not threaten other countries[15]. Conversely, France was indecisive, and Austria was totally against the intervention.

Revolution in Italy

In 1820 July, the liberal army officers revolted against Ferdinand, making them the first officials to demanding a constitution. The Carbonari revolution was a success due to the fear and incompetence of the King, who promised a constitution[16]. The novel government thus won some support from the modest liberals. However, the ruling party was shocked to learn of the demands of the Carbonari, and conflict emerged.  The Sicily insurgence distracted the Italian revolution. Sicily revolt had, for a long time, hated Naples rules and claimed autonomy[17].  However, the Neapolitan government suppressed the Sicilians, which weakened the revolution. Attention was reverted to Spain after the suppression of Italian evolution.  Although there was an ineffective monarch coup, a rival administration was enacted, which proclaimed to be regency for the ruling administration and requested for the intervention powers. Although the British were against the intervention, the tsar supported the intervention and urged France to mediate on behalf of the coalition[18]. In fear of Britain retrieving from the union, Metternich sought for negotiation. However, the French administration declined both his compromise and an order from the authority. In 1823, France declared war and invaded Spain, defeated them, and restored Ferdinand to power.

The Greek Revolution

Unlike the Italian and Spanish, the Greek revolution was more powerful. Spain and Italy had limited support, and powers united against them, leading to their downfall. Under the Ottoman Empire, the Greeks were permitted to control their affairs independently. The Greek revolution was as a result of enlightenment on nationalism which had started to influence most educated Greeks, particularly those outside the empire. An active secret society known as the PhilikeHetairia had developed since 1814, in honor of Greek independence. The problem arose in 1821 when Alexander Ypsilanti, the leader of Hetairia as well as the Russian general, declared a revolution in Moldavia[19].

Comparison of the Revolutions

There has to be a particular reason as to why revolutions emerge in a particular nation or region.  The main reason as to why most of the revolutions occurred in Europe was due to the liberation issues. In most cases, the initiators of the revolutions felt that the ruling government was, in some way, denying the population its rights. The political strategy deployed by all the revolution was through demanding a new constitution that would favor most of their interests. Since most of the people against the government begin as the minority, they all have to begin as a secret group, as observed in France, Spain, Italy, and Greece.[20] In the French revolution, the thinkers observed the need to advocate for enlightenment as most of the policies in the government benefited only a few individuals.  The Greek Revolution emerged due to the idea of nationalism. Italy and Spain revolution base their reason on-demand for constitutional change.  The fact that there existed a group of people with skeptical ideas towards the ruling government, then a revolution was vulnerable to occur.

Since the revolutions occurred within the same period, the weapons used in the battlegrounds were majorly similar. The weapons used in the French Revolution were simple and included swords, guns, pistols, and bayonets. During the Napoleonic wars, the people used arms such as rifles, sabers, muskets, and bayonets[21]. The primary weapon during the Napoleon revolution was the smoothbore musket. Virtually all the revolutions in Europe used Muskets as the primary weapon during the fighting.  Before the introduction of the machine guns, the muskets were common arms used in fighting. Irrespective of the weapons used, not all the revolutions were successful.

In comparison to the modern forms of political insurrection, due to technological advancement, the revolts would deploy machine guns and modern weapons during war.  Unlike the ancient times were rifles and muskets were commonly used, the modern time war will deploy even the atomic and nuclear bombs to destroy a particular region. However, in modern times, a revolution can emerge by demanding constitution amendments, failure to which war might erupt. Similarly, in the modern political insurrection, the revolts are often conducted in secrecy without the knowledge of the ruling government[22]. The main reason as to why the revolution begins in secrecy is to prevent leakage of information to the ruling government who might destroy the plans.

Conclusion

The European revolutions set grounds for the global revolution and industrialization.

Through the European revolutions, the entire world understood the essence of rights and freedom. Revolutions also enlightened the world on the need for change when ruling systems are ineffective.  Although the revolutions were associated with the massive death of people, the ultimate results are observed in contemporary times. The need for equality through the advocacy of the constitution was the primary cause of the uprisings in the European continent. France pioneered in the revolutions giving insights to other European nations on how to handle a government that is not meeting the needs of the population. A common idea that is learned from the revolutions is that it begins as a secret plan among a small group of people who, along the way, recruit several followers to work against the ruling administration. Revolutions are more powerful when the government is weak as the ruler will readily conform to their demands. However, when a revolution is against an authoritarian ruling government, the chances of overturning the government are minimal.

References

Agensky, Jonathan C. “Recognizing religion: Politics, history, and the “long 19th century”.” European Journal of International Relations 23, no. 4 (2017): 729-755. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066116681428

Charles, Tilly. “The Contentious French.” (1986).

Hobsbawm, Eric J. “Primitive Rebels: Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movement in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Nueva York.” (1965).

Roberts, Peter. “Napoleon the Great.” (2015): 94-95. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071847.2015.1054740

[1]Agensky, Jonathan C. “Recognizing religion: Politics, history, and the “long 19th century”.” European Journal of International Relations 23, no. 4 (2017): 729-755.

[2]Ibid 732

[3] Ibid

[4] Ibid

[5]Ibid

[6] Agensky, Jonathan C. “Recognizing religion: Politics, history, and the “long 19th century”.” European Journal of International Relations 23, no. 4 (2017): 729-755.

[7]Ibid 742

[8]  Ibid

[9]Charles, Tilly. “The Contentious French.” (1986)

[10]Ibid

[11] Ibid

[12]Roberts, Peter. “Napoleon the Great.” (2015): 94-95.

[13]Kamenka, Eugene. “The concept of a political revolution.”In Revolution, pp. 122-135.Routledge, 2017.

[14]Agensky, Jonathan C. “Recognizing religion: Politics, history, and the “long 19th century”.” European Journal of International Relations 23, no. 4 (2017): 729-755.

[15]Ibid 128

[16]Hobsbawm, Eric J. “Primitive Rebels: Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movement in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Nueva York.” (1965).

[17] Ibid

[18] Ibid

[19]Hobsbawm, Eric J. Primitive Rebels

[20] Ibid

[21]Agensky, Jonathan C. “Recognizing religion: Politics, history, and the “long 19th century”.” European Journal of International Relations 23, no. 4 (2017): 729-755.

[22]Ibid