Enhance Job Performance Within the Federal Government, Dissertation Example

Abstract

“Perry and Wise (1990) argued that people with high public service motivation (PSM) are more likely than others to choose government jobs, to perform better on the job, and to respond more to non-utilitarian incentives once in government. Using multiple regression and logit analyses on responses by 35,000 federal, white-collar employees to the 1991 Survey of Federal Employees and the 1996 Merit Principles Survey, this data tests the link between PSM and job performance in the federal service. There is mixed evidence on whether PSM positively affected grades and performance ratings, clearer evidence that employees who expected to receive a material reward for exceptional performance attained higher grades and performance ratings, and no evidence that the link between material rewards and performance mattered any less to those with high PSM.”[1](Alonso, P., 2001).

Through the past twenty years there have been directions on antecedent focus of managerial tools and methods to enhance job performance within the federal government and public sector. These are considered one-sided output oriented reforms.  There should also be focus on employee attitudes, institutional practise, organizational goals, and organizational factors and performance.  “These dimensions of perceived performance were tested in the federal administration of Switzerland, China, Danish government and others and all yielded inconclusive evidence based on the original theory of Perry (1996).

Enhanced job performance increased productivity as a whole and with that comes market oriented reward systems.  “It can be shown in the form of extrinsic or intrinsic rewards.  The most common of all rewards is pay rate increase.” The government works to improve the efficacy of the performance appraisal system.  Although we do not have measures of how fairly employees think the system is being implemented, most do think that the standards used to evaluate their performance are fair, and three-fifth’s of federal employees is satisfied with their supervisors.” [2](Seongsoo, O. & Gregory, L. 2008).

Through adamant years of dedicated validity studies it  has only been through recent work by Professors Wright and Christensen of the University of North Carolina (Wright & Christensen 2009) where they took a theory presented by Perry and brought it to the ‘fourth dimension’ and validated the theory into mathematical equation for the an International Convention in the states, that conclusive advance on PSM has been achieved. This will be further discussed in the paper. It is only through this validation that the original theory of Perry and Perry and Wise has officially been validated. Previously it was only a theory of which had no true scientific basis, but did provide an important starting point for PSM. It appears that variables were not put into place when conducting the research and probably was the downfall of Perry’s research.  Though with any new research, it must be built on thus Perry is still respected for his contribution to for formal definition and antecedent work of PSM.

Background

The concept of Public Service Motivation was developed by James Perry and Lois R. Wise in 1990. [3]Rainey (1982) emphasized that PSM is a broad, multifaceted concept that may be perceived many different ways and PSM in inherently difficult to measure and define. [4]Mann (2006) pointed out two decades later that the concept remains strong that no definition or standard of measure exists and contradictory findings are not uncommon. Intent is to strengthen and improve the administrative framework within the federal government and improve the Civil Service by reducing its size and introducing a sense of professionalism within the various cadres in the departments lacking. Personnel Management Office is responsible for looking after the welfare of the administration and Civil Service and ensuring efficiency, effectiveness and professionalism.  Management tools such as manpower planning, budgeting, organizational reviews, restructuring of staff review programs, training and staff development, administering sound staff policies and procedures and having a “Performance Appraisal” System in place are all needed for improvement of an enhanced program related to job performance. Annual job performance evaluations should be considered as mandatory and implemented as part of a routine subject matter.

“Work motivation is one of the most frequently discussed topics in psychology [5](Rousseau, 1997), yet it continues to receive only limited attention in public administration research”. “There is no single theory of work motivation to understand it or define it however; there is a growing consensus that any particular model of work motivation should include the underlying process variables that explain how goals affect work motivation.” [6](Kanfer 1992; Katzell and Thompson 1990; Mitchell 1997). The significance of goal theory is important in public sector employment such as federal government employment because it forces reliance on personal significance reinforcement rather than on merely monetary incentives in respect to motivational techniques.  Often government jobs are high profile jobs.

Performance Appraisal System for Work Motivation

Implementation of the Performance Appraisal System is essential in enhanced job performance because it gives a tracked record for employees and an incentive to want to work diligently in order to be credited for such dedication through intrinsic or extrinsic reward systems. The results are also used for the basis of training and promotion of employees. “Studies show that in Africa employers attempted to implement a PAS in 1987 and had many complications because staff and management were not familiar with the PAS and the forms went unfilled and employees went unreviewed.” [7](Trallaway, S, 2009).  Perhaps the ‘avoidance syndrome’ culture inhibited the successful performance of the PAS in Africa.  Eventually many of the Civil Service employees left the company and again the implementation was put on hold.

This particular situation shows with many other American companies and the federal government that Human Resources is simply not equipped to do performance evaluations and properly have an employee’s talents or disadvantages discovered.  There simply needs to be a separate department that conducts evaluations for the purpose of keep quality assurance in check in the federal government employment system. Of course, supervisors, managers and co-workers will still have to actively participate in the evaluations to ensure they are fair and just, but the coordination of the evaluations should be conducted by a separate department dedicated to job performance and all applicable agenda relating as such.

Examining Capacity and Development

“Capacity is an issue to examine with respect of whether an individual can perform his/her objective in a sustainable manner.” [8](OECD).  Capacity Development is the process through which the abilities to perform are obtained, strengthened, adapted or maintained over a period of time. “Typical aspects of capacity are the quality of federal government employees, organizational characteristics, intergovernmental relations and the style and relation between the government and social and economic relations.”[9] (Verheijen, A. 2000).”Human resource capacity development, in turn, relates to the provision of a trained work force; to the promotion of knowledge and skills that are required by a society to acquire greater prosperity through the building of productive capabilities. Human resource development can be perceived as both a process and a goal since it can be an end in itself as it results in the realization of human potential and the development of individual self-reliance.” [10](Saasa, O., 2009).

Antecedent for Job Performance

Antecedent for job performance is necessary for adequate training programs, organizational training policies, proper placement of personnel and proper monitoring mechanisms to determine the capacity productivity of the trained personnel to contribute meaningfully to the company’s development. Recruitment is a determining factor on such systems.  Inadequate recruitment constraints as seen in Africa pose restraints on skilled labour. Low salaries, poor service conditions, uncompetitive working environment and other restraints all pose significant restraints on job performance levels in the federal government and civil service sectors.

African Study

In Africa, monopolized over-centralized decision making by upper management poses a declination to job performance because workers feel they have no freedom to express themselves with potential for advancement.  Middle-management is somewhat overpowered by upper-management and this promotes disgruntled employees and a high turnover. There appears to be a lack of clear distinction in the roles of government officials with particular regard to level of rank.  “Ministers take on the roles of deeply involved details and administrators are reluctant to delegate responsibilities of great importance to lower level management of government.  These weaknesses have given rise to ethical irresponsibility with sight of interpreted corruption.” [11](Saasa, O., 2009).

Capacity Roles

Capacity aids in the role of technical development which needs to be addressed for successful job performance issues to be at a maximum output in the federal government sector. The improvement of skills, knowledge, productive aptitudes includes the provision of a policy, successful implementation of projects and the building of the human resources through on the job training. This role seeks to modify and strengthen any skilled and under skilled workers in need of additional training. Modernization of methods training and procedures should be addressed for effective performance from employees.  “In 1996, the United Nations emphasized that efficient public administration is the foundation for developing strong civil society, market-friendly economies and guaranteeing of human rights.” [12](Sassa, O., 2009). If present, then there would obviously be an urgent need to identify and address the existing gaps in national technical capacities which have continued to compromise positive growth and development.

Federal government ought to recognize that the challenge of implementing far-reaching institutional and human resource development programmes requires extraordinary political will and talented, dedicated, patient, and persistent professionals whose level of commitment to the mission of local ownership of their country’s Development Agenda is unwavering. “This means that the new ways of doing things shall require a team of ‘Champions’ at the highest level in the political hierarchy in each country to lead the drive forward.”[13](Saasa, O., 2009).

African Study (2)

In terms of the African government, they need to take full responsibility for the implementation of reform and success of such programs into their federal government. In this regard, the development of indigenous capacity and home-grown policies informed by local knowledge and perspectives provides the best hope for Africa’s development challenge. There is also the issue of who else could provide leadership beyond those who are already in the government systems on the Continent. At this level, the challenge could be extended to the well-off and accomplished Africans to proactively take charge of fostering capacity enhancement and the evolution of visionary and transformational leaderships in their countries.

Capacity, continued

“Capacity training initiatives within the federal government in the US as well as other countries should be aimed at training technical professionals and not specifically focused on developing leaders who will be able to deal with global and geopolitical changes in the economy.” [14](Sassa, O., 2009).  Well managed reform programs should be at the centre of management’s goals to improve job performances.

“The institutional reform measures should be complemented by an effective State performance monitoring mechanism that should strive at setting clearly-spelt, measurable and realistic government objectives.”[15] (Saasa, O., 2009). In addition, the performance monitoring mechanism should be supported by an effective management information system that is capable of providing accurate, reliable, timely, and user-friendly data that is required not only for organisational performance monitoring of key performance indicators but also for the broader aspects of policy analysis. It is equally noteworthy that efficient financial management is an integral part of reforms that focus on capacity development. “This involves increased transparency and accountability in the budgeting system and decentralisation of tax collection and resource management. At the same time, it is true that only a properly skilled stock of human resources can ensure proper management of resources.”[16](Saasa, O., 2009).

Without the required competent, experienced and motivated human resource that would drive institutions and systems forward, no amount of planning effort would be rewarded with positive change.  To the extent that institutional reorganizations and capacity building depends on human resources, addressing the existing human resource capacity gaps through training and retention of professionals within the civil service should receive the highest priority. Governments are a complex interaction of systems and people. It will not work effectively if people in the public service do not have the right combination of skills, knowledge, and attitudes, and if there is not a structured system in place for the regulation of interaction. The human dimension should, thus, consist of more than training; it is also about the involvement of those people in the determination of the mission and goals of the government, the analysis of its shortcomings and the determination and implementation of solutions.

Controlled Resources through Decentralization

“The use of controlled resources through decentralization underscores the value of equity in both resource planning and resource use.  Decentralised systems seek to improve governance in three ways: by improving the efficiency of resource allocation; by promoting accountability and reducing corruption; and by improving cost recovery.”[17](Saasa, O., 2009).

Civil society is located below sub-national governments and includes actors and structures that initiate social or political action, ranging from individuals, organized pressure groups, associations, and agencies, to the media. It also encompasses private sector bodies, parent-teachers associations, trade unions, neighbourhood organizations, and, rarely appreciated in the so-called ‘modern’ governance systems.

Reformation

Reform must come from internal means. The change process must be locally owned and driven by the needs of the public. Strong leadership and commitment is essential for the reforms to be sustained. There must be a strong vision in public sector to want to achieve in order for change to occur. Public sector organizations are largely dominated by administrative culture in which they lay down the authority and are at the centre of the rules and delegation to the periphery.  “Empirical evidence suggests that lasting change in administrative reform can only be achieved through a participative approach that harnesses the knowledge and commitment of a wide variety of interested parties through a dialectical process. There is a need to strike a balance between the development of market based economies and the development of more equitable and democratic societies. The process of capacity enhancement depends on the availability of timely and accurate information. Thus, investment in information technology is essential.” This includes an investment in computer personnel as well as the hardware and software related. “As governments adopt a different role in relation to the direct provision of services and production of goods through divestment and privatisation programmes, they also need to examine their role in relation to private sector activity.”[18] (Saasa, O., 2009). “Sound macroeconomic policies, including a transparent and enabling domestic business environment and an efficient financial sector based on the rule of law, are fundamental. This requires effective macroeconomic management capacity, including legislative and regulatory abilities and debt management skills.” (Sassa, O, 2009)

Other factors affecting Public Service Motivation (PSM) according to Perry and Wise (1990) are one of the “Q-Methodology purpose that Samaritans are strongly motivated to help others especially underprivileged segments of society; Communitarians are motivated by sentiments of civic responsibility and public service; Patriots act for causes such as protecting, advocating and working for the good of the public and they want public officials to do what is best for the whole of the community regardless of the personal consequences; Humanitarians are motivated by a strong sense of social justice and public service.”[19] (Ileri, O., 2007).

Perry and Identification of Antecedents of PSM

“Perry (1997) identified several antecedents of PSM in relation to three types of motives; parental socializations, religious socialization, professional identification, political ideology and individual demographics.” [20](Ileri, O., 2007).  Perry points out that the results of his study are quite controversial and at the same time the antecedents have some ‘potential’ importance influence on PSM.  “Church involvement appeared to have a negative influence rather than a perceived positive influence; professional identification is negatively related to attraction to policy making and positively associated with civic duty and self-sacrifice; and PSM is positively related to education level and age and develops from exposure to a variety of childhood experiences such as religion and professional life experiences.” [21](Perry, 1997).

Further studies show that with high levels of PSM were likely to fall within the category of being either female, managers or with a higher level of education to that of their counterparts. [22](Bright, 2005).  This poses a problem because what does the government do with the male, non-management and not so educated or lower educated employees? Bright, 2005 also shows that higher motivated PSM employees desire monetary incentives significantly ‘less than’ lower level PSM employees.

An issue to examine is the relationship between PSM and its behavioural implications such as organizational performance and individual performance since there have been controversial results produced thus far on such issues. Future research should continue to examine the personal characteristics as well as demographics of public employees that affect PSM.  There has been suggested weakness of the relationship between PSM and performance. The issue is whether PSM positively affects grades and performance ratings.  “There is clear evidence that employees who expected to receive a material reward for exceptional performance attained higher grades and performance but there is also evidence that those who attained higher PSM levels did not care as much about material rewards. Hence there is discrepancy with this data and conclusions based upon such.  Lewis and Alonso (2001) asserted that if government agencies could convince employees that advancement and rewards depend on performance, they might increase productivity for both ‘high and low PSM individuals.” [23](Ileri, O., 2007).

Others Make Contributions to PSM Studies-Gabris and Simo, Crewson, Kim, Wright

Gabris and Simo (1995) conducted an empirical study that suggest that if after all the testing conducted by Crewson (1997) for organization commitment which formalized that commitment is the strength of an organization and Kim (2005) produced a study of PSM on organizational citizenship behaviour of public employees which formalized that behaviour is discretionary in nature and not directly rewarded within the context of the organizations formal reared structure but is effective for the positive functioning of an organization.  “On the other hand, the study of Gabris and Simo (1995) suggests that if public sector motivation does exist, that its effect on employee behaviour and attitudes toward work expectations and personal goals is ‘negligible’ at best. [24]Wright (2007) pointed out that ‘inconsistency’ of the empirical findings may make result of ‘incomplete’ rather than ‘inaccurate’ theoretical models because there are no underlying process variables that explain how such differences have an impact on employee work motivation or performance.”[25](Ileri, O., 2007).

It is essential that a public sector environment such as the federal government recruit employees with striking high PSM levels. The quality of the employees is a significant factor in determining the performance of the organization, the acquiring of the recruitment and improved performance of the organization. Attracting employees with a high PSM can help to improve the performance of the organization as a while.  Public service employees are normally ‘intrinsically’ motivated rather than private sector motivation techniques of extrinsic nature.  This aids in the retention of employees for the long haul and helps to ‘weed out’ the lower level PSM employees.  They will eventually resign and move on to private sector employment.  PSM employees tend to be less dependent on utilitarian incentives to gain personal achievement and self-worth.  PSM in the federal sector is positively related to organizational commitment. Organizational performance plays a key role in high PSM employee’s achievement.

With regards to PSM International Relations, there are some striking similarities as domestically and internationally there is a common goal shared with relation to core beliefs, values and attitudes however there are also cultural differences and difference of law and respect for the applicability of laws and value of historical institutionalism that prevent PMS from being invented in certain countries.  I have only briefly contrasted other PSM attempts in other countries for the purpose of analogy and critical analysis to provide a stronger review of the US federal government system.

Literature Review

Inconsistencies with Empirical Studies

It has been established through various empirical studies that result of PSM are quite inconsistent due to presumable factors used to justify simple direct relationships. Empirical studies are based in the United States but these theories are practised and further studied in many international countries. There are no guarantees that PSM is a primary reason why a person chooses public work or a particular agency. “Furthermore, there is no guarantee that a public affiliation conducts its work aligned with PSM values by its mission.”[26] (Coursey, D., 2009). PSM has an important impact on how employees and supervisors identify themselves with their institutions. “Those who endorse the PSM concept, assume a positive relationship between PSM and performance. For this purpose, research reverts to job characteristics and concludes that PSM acts upon those job features that result in increased motivation to perform.” [27](Ritz, A., 2009). How can we define and measure the ethics and contributions of Public Service Motivation with relation to job performance? More importantly, what are the perceived ramifications of PSM for personnel v management in the federal government and public sector? Is there really a difference? Does this all contribute to motivation of ‘confidence’ with the public sector role? With relation to these questions does PSM exists only with federal government employees or is there a correlation with non-profit and private sectors as well? For the purpose of this paper I will focus on PSM, antecedents and consequences related to federal government employment in the United States but for the purpose of critical analysis only,  I will relate data, experiences and academic findings to other public sectors and foreign governments (with relation to their experiences with PSM).

“Perry and Vandenabeele (2008) proposed a new foundation for PSM theory grounded in a mix of altruism, self-identity, and institutional theories. As a predictor, the theory suggests that PSM relationships are moderated and/or mediated by self-regulation via organizational factors and saliency of an activity to individual self-identity.

PSM has a stronger relationship to evaluation as citizen participation is more important in the agency; and/or 2) the importance of citizen participation is negatively associated with evaluation for low and medium levels of PSM but for high PSM levels, evaluations improve with importance.” [28](Coursey, D., 2009). “There have been a few studies testing more complex relations, such as mediated (e.g., Bright, 2007; Wright and Pandey, 2008) and moderated (e.g., Perry and Thomson, 2004) models encompassing broader arguments for how values translate into action or outcomes (e.g., Wright, 2004; Wright and Pandey, 2008). These are mostly based on self-regulation theories such as person-environment fit (i.e, Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; e.g, Bright, 2007), goal setting (i.e., Locke and Latham, 1990; e.g., Wright, 2004), and social cognitive theory (i.e., Bandura, 1986; e.g., Wright, 2004). Yet, there is little work revising overall PSM theory to accommodate such perspectives.” In this research, we evaluate Perry and Vandenabeele’s (2008) model in terms of PSM as an antecedent.”[29](Coursey, D., 2009). [30]Perry and Vandenabeele (2008) postulate individuals will vary in PSM based on their backgrounds. How much PSM influences behaviour and attitudes will vary by two factors:

• the consistency of their value systems with PSM (are they high, low, or simply
• do not identify with PSM);
• does the individual view the organization, work, activity as related to PSM values? For example, if someone has high PSM and they view the organization and its work fitting those values, PSM will be a greater influence (in this case positive) on behavioural outcomes such as job satisfaction and performance.

Theories, Findings and Scholar Predictions

Social-cognitive theory suggests individuals base their actions on how attractive and consistent actions are with their values. Several self-regulation theories are consistent with Self-determination theory suggests individuals engage in actions as they are naturally attracted to them via their interests and values. Predisposition-opportunity proposes that how well organizational incentives systems match an individual’s motivations. What is key is the idea how that individual will perform differently as their goals vary. It is reasonable to presume that individuals will vary in their perception of work activities and be more or less motivated and committed to them.

Continuously scholars predict that PSM increases the productivity and performance of federal government or public sector employees.  The two tested hypothesis have different results. Particularly, one study was whether Person-Organization Fit mediates the relationship between PSM and the self-reported performance of public employees.  There was a random sample of 205 employees from three different public sector companies drawn and the results found that PSM had ‘no significant direct impact’ on the performance of public employees.

These scholars found that although PSM was positively related to performance appraisals in one sample of employees, no relationship was found in the other sample. “They also determined that PSM was negatively related to the grade level of federal employees. Taken together, the results of these studies offer no firm conclusion about the direct influences of PSM on the performance of public employees. these influences are mediated by employees’ compatibility with their organization. Using this line of reasoning, it can be argued that individuals with high levels of PSM are attracted to public organizations because these organizations contain job tasks and working conditions that support their public service motives. Nevertheless, although there is theoretical evidence to suggest that PSM is positively related to the compatibility of individuals in public organizations, we cannot assume that public employees with high levels of PSM will be compatible with all types of public organizations. Consequently, PSM is associated with performance insomuch as it positively enhances the compatibility of public employees in their organization. If this is the case, PSM is only indirectly associated with the job performance of public employees through P–O fit.”[31] (Coursey, D., 2009).

PSM and P-O-Is There a Correlation and Fit to This Madness?

The current study suggests that PSM has no direct significant influence on the job performance of public employees. However, as noted, P–O Fit is not the only predictor of performance. Second, although PSM was not a significant direct predictor of the performance of public employees, it does meaningfully contribute to the compatibility between individuals and public organizations. Individuals with high PSM levels are attracted to public organizations because they are more compatible with the goals, missions, and work environment of these organizations. This suggests that public managers should design recruitment strategies that attract the best and brightest individuals who are predisposed to public service motives. These motives will improve the chance that newly recruited public employees will internalize the goals and values of the public sector.

PSM and P–O Fit are related, yet, they are separate and distinct concepts. We should not assume that individuals with high levels of PSM will have high levels of fit and performance in each and every public organization. It is quite possible for an individual to have high levels of PSM and be incompatible in a particular public organization.

Public organizations deal with a complexity of issues on a daily basis. They often address these problems in an environment that is hostile and unforgiving. This situation can be frustrating and exhausting for many employees who have public service motives but possess limited ability to solve these problems within themselves. “Even though existing research revealed that public managers with high levels of PSM are more tolerant of red tape (Scott & Pandey, 2005), prolonged experience in a bureaucratic maze can deflate good intentions.” [32](Coursey, D., 2009).

It can be seen that the job performance of individuals is very critical in the federal government. With this in mind, many managers and scholars are very interested in Perry and Wise’s (1990) hypothesis of PSM’s relationship to the performance of public employees. Unfortunately, two previous empirical studies that tested this hypothesis came to different conclusions. This is very discouraging to managers of the public sector. The purpose of the current study was to investigate whether the P–O Fit mediated the relationship between PSM and the performance of public employees. The current study also sought to examine the importance that PSM has to the performance and congruence of public employees in public organizations. The findings of the current study were fairly consistent with the studies stated hypothesis and existing research. PSM was found to have no statistically significant direct influence on the job performance of public employees when compared to P–O Fit. “However, the current study did indicate that PSM is an important contributor to P–O Fit in public organizations and subsequently an important indirect contributor to the performance of employees. Given this finding, future research on the job performance of public employees should consider the compatibility between public employees and public organizations.” It is my belief that the failure to take into account ‘compatibility issues’ contributed to the mixed results of Naff and Crum (1999) and Alonso and Lewis (2001). (Coursey, D., 2009).

Results of PSM and P-O Fit Should be Guarded and Interpreted ‘with caution’

Nevertheless, the results of the current study should be evaluated ‘with caution’. Future research should consider larger populations and different variables to better determine whether these findings are representative There should be a determination of clarity to the causal connections among the study variables. This study only tested the relationship between PSM, P–O Fit, and performance, and not their causal connections. “Although relationships are central conditions of causality, they alone are not enough to prove causality.” (Coursey, D., 2009).  In addition, the design of the current study does not provide clear information regarding the accurate directions of the relationship among the study variables. “‘It assumed that PSM and P–O Fit were the influencers of performance.’ However, it is very possible that the performance rating employees receive from their managers influences employees’ perceptions of fit and PSM level.”[33] (Coursey, D., 2009). “As a result, at the very most, the findings of the current study “suggest” that a causal relationship exists between P–O Fit and the performance of public employees, while acknowledging the possibility of the bidirectionality of this relationship.” (Coursey, D. 2009). The same can be stated for the relationship between PSM and P–O Fit.

Variation of PSM in Different Environments

Future studies could examine the variation of PSM in different environments.  The current study took a generalized approach to investigating the connections among PSM, P–O Fit, and performance. The research participants were drawn from three largely different local government organizations and represented a mix of public administration professionals. For example, the connection between PSM and P–O Fit could be higher among health workers when compared to local government workers. As a result, similar to the suggestion proposed by Bright (2005), future research should explore the extent to which PSM is evenly distributed between different types of public organizations and between subunits within organizations. There is reason to believe that PSM has different influences on important outcomes in organizations that have differing job characteristics.

Performance of Public Employees

Third, future studies should utilize other approaches in measuring the performance of public employees. A weakness of the current study centres on the self-reported performance measurements. It is likely that the self-reported performance ratings based on the performance appraisals of the participants influenced the results of the current study. “It is important that scholars clearly define the specific types of performance that are mostly likely influenced by PSM and use indicators that are logical representations. In addition, it was also clear that some of the respondents had not received performance ratings from their supervisors and were not able to provide performance information. Other respondents could have had trouble accurately and consistently translating the performance appraisal categories used by their current organization to the rating categories used in the current study. So, although self-reported ratings are widely used in research; we must not ignore its problems.” (Coursey, D., 2009).  There is a need to find better measures of performance that are agreeable, feasible, and protective of the anonymity of the respondents.

PSM and P-O Variables Do Not Prove Connections

Fourth, more research is needed to determine the primacy of PSM and P–O Fit on important organizational outcomes. Even with current positive findings between P–O Fit, PSM, and performance, it does not prove that these connections are the most important when compared to other variables. For example, given the less-than-perfect relationship between P–O Fit and performance, it is clear that other factors influenced the performance of public employees. Similarly, it is clear that PSM is not the only factor that influences the fit between public employees and public organizations. Hence, future studies should address whether P–O Fit is the most important factor on the performance of public employees, and whether PSM is the most important factor on the fit between public employees and public organizations, when compared to other variables. Answering these questions will help establish the extent to which PSM and P–O Fit are requirements for organizational outcomes, such as performance, job satisfaction, and commitment. Nonetheless, the current study confirmed the importance of compatibility to the job performance of public employees and highlighted the contributions that PSM makes to these critical management issues.

Chinese Study of Instrumentality of PSM

The instrumentality of PSM was studied in China.  “In Study 1, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was implemented to test the existence of PSM based on 99 social workers in Region A of one city located in Eastern China. In Study 2, another CFA process was implemented to confirm the construct validity of PSM, based on 474 social workers in Region B of the same city. In Study 2, professionals evaluated the instrumentality of PSM. The results identify several key implications for professionals working in social work management and administration: “(1) PSM can be used as an additional tool to recruit and select individuals who are best suited for social work; (2) For management in social work or other public sectors, PSM could be as a direction in training and development; (3) More importantly, PSM could provide additional view of incentives in social work or other public sectors.” [34](Bangcheung, L., 2009).  Public service literature makes comment that those who pursue public service careers are motivated primarily in different ways that other Americans of society. “Hiring individual pre-disposed with PSM tends to improve public sector performance and tends to overcome incentive problems in the public sector.” [35](Georgellis, Y., Iossa, E. and Tabvuma, V., 2008). The concept of PSM is defined as “an individual’s predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions” (Perry, 1996). “This predisposition is determined by environmental factors, such as parental modelling or socialization within organizations. It reflects three categories of motives: rational, norm-based and affective. Rational motives are present when individuals want to participate in policy-making to pursue their political agenda, or when individuals commit to a public program because they personally identify with it. Norm-based motives are generated by a desire to pursue the public interest; they include patriotism, civic duty and a sense of loyalty to the government. Affective motives refer to behaviour motivated by emotional responses to different social contexts and are characterized by a desire to help others.”[36](Georgellis, Y., Iossa, E. and Tabvuma, V., 2008).

Conclusive empirical evidence of PSM has yet to be found but there is evidence in studies that supporting data is coming very close to reaching validity in the coming years as expressed with “Brewer and Selden (1998) have found evidence of PSM amongst whistle-blowers, but their sample comprises only public sector employees, thus they do not compare public sector workers with workers in other sectors. “Crewson (1997) and Dilulio (1994) have shown that workers in the public sector report higher satisfaction with the intrinsic characteristics of work than workers in the private sector.” [37](Brewer, G., 2000).

Intrinsic Data Found

“These studies however do not show whether it is the public sector that causes individuals to derive greater satisfaction from the intrinsic characteristics of their work or rather it is individuals who derive greater satisfaction from the intrinsic characteristics of public-sector work who are drawn to the public sector.” [38](Georgellis, Y., Iossa, E. and Tabvuma, V., 2008). Our results show that the higher the predicted satisfaction with the work itself in the public sector, the higher the probability that an individual will make the transition from the private to the public sector. Instead, higher predicted satisfaction with the extrinsic characteristics does not raise the probability of transition. These results imply that individuals are drawn to the public sector by the intrinsic characteristics of working in the public sector rather than the extrinsic benefits, which is consistent with the existence of  PSM evidence. “There is some evidence offering some of the first evidence on public sector rents based on domain satisfaction measures, thus contributing to a growing literature on public sector rents using subjective well-being measures (see e.g. Luechinger, Meier, and Stutzer, 2005; Clark and Senik, 2005; and Clark.) Earlier studies on public sector rents focused mainly on wage differentials (see e.g. Bender 1998).”[39] (Georgellis, Y., Iossa, E., & Tabvuma, V., 2008).

Danish Study with Non-Conclusive Evidence

Public service motivation was studied for the Danish and is still under study as we speak. Preliminary assumptions were made suggestions based on Perry and Vandabeele’s theories on PSM and presented at the International Public Service Motivation Research Conference in Bloomington, Indiana this year by Morten Balle Hansen of the University of Southern Denmark’s Political Science and Business Management Departments. He includes five antecedents in his paper that of gender/education, task and position, organization and public sector, leadership priorities and other job performance motivators in the public sector.  The results show a very high concentration with relation to managers on all dimensions of PSM.  Pride in the public sector is found to be the strongest predictor in the public sector while female is found to be the strongest negative predictor. Professor Hansen’s work is preliminary at this stage but builds on previous work as others on the previous work conducted by Perry (1996) and Vandenabeele (2008). Hansen’s research is academic based focusing on motivational bases of organization behaviours within Public Administration (Perry and Wise 1990b).

Latham and Pinder (2005) pointed out the importance of understanding work motivation. The concept of PSM fits very securely into theory development because it relates to theory development of a ‘specific context’ of public organizations (Perry 2000; Perry and Wise 1990a). Perry and Wise defined PSM as “an individual’s predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions and organizations” (1990 p. 368).

Research Finding From Previous Study on PSM

Perry and Wise were the first to research the elaborating empirical measures of PSM and with that research came the most influential definition of PSM. Perry was also the first to analyze the antecedents of PSM (Perry 1997). He used five determining factors and about 234 subjects with regards to attraction to policy making, commitment to public policy, compassion, self-sacrifice and a composite of the four. Antecedents were parental modelling, church involvement, church involvement, attraction and closeness to God, spirituality related to religious choices, professionalism, family ties, education, age, income and gender. It can be seen that Perry found that religion and closeness to God were signifant factors contributing to antecedents to PSM.

Camilleri European Study

In a European study, Camilerri (Camilerri 2007) used about 2100 public employees as subjects based on the theory of research proposed by Perry (1996). PSM was measured using all Perry’s 24 items (1996) and thus the dimensions: attraction to policy making, commitment, compassion and self-sacrifice. A number of antecedents where included in the quantitative analysis using such techniques as correlations and structural equation modelling. “The antecedents were  classified by Camilleri in five categories of antecedents: 1) personal attributes (age, gender, job grade, organizational tenure, job tenure, educational level, family life cycle status and salary), 2) role states (role conflict and ambiguity), 3) employee perception of the organisation (biased for action, customer focused, autonomy and entrepreneurship, productivity through people and loose-tight properties), 4) employee-leader relations (leadership consideration, initiating structure, participation), and 5) job characteristics (skill variety, task autonomy, task identity, task feedback, friendship opportunities, dealing with others and task significance).” [40](Hansen, B., 2009).

Camilleri has found that the PSM is based upon the organization environment surrounding the public service employees.  This is the classic case of ‘you are a product of your environment’.

Moynihan and Pandey American Study

Moynihan and Pandey (Moynihan and Pandey 2007) prepared data based on focus on organizational antecedents for PSM.  Their subjects were some 274 top American public American political and communications administrators. they analyzed variations in their “Public Service Motivation measured by indexes of attraction to policy making, commitment to public interest/civic duty, and an overall PSM index, made up of the former two scales. In their regression analysis they include measures of the following organizational antecedents: hierarchical authority, red tape, reform orientation, hierarchical culture, developmental culture, group culture and rational culture.” (Hansen, B., 2009).  Besides the organizational variables they include measures of professional identification, personal income, and length of organizational membership, age, education level and gender in the regression analysis. One or more measures of PSM where found to be significantly related to their measures of education, professional identification, red tape, reform orientation, hierarchical orientation, length of organizational membership and gender.

Recent Study Based on Perry’s Philosophies and Theories

The most recent study reviewed here is based on a sample of 526+ American national volunteer award winners recognized for their contributions to the public good of their communities (Perry et al. 2008). The study was conducted in 2004 and besides the survey 26 qualitative interviews where done. The dependent variable public service motivation was measured by 11 items from Perry’s scale (1996). The eleven items were drawn from three of the four scale sub dimensions: commitment to public interest and civic duty, compassion, and self-sacrifice. The antecedents included in the analysis where gender, income, level of education, volunteering, family socialization, religious activity and youth volunteering. They used structural equation modelling to analyze the data. The structural model proposed that gender, level of education and income have an indirect impact on PSM through volunteering, while family socialization, religious activity and youth volunteering both have a direct and indirect impact on PSM. They found that the included antecedents were significant but not strong predictors of PSM. Developmental processes associated with family socialization and religious activity that are normally important early in life are significant influences, but hardly the sole or even predominant determinants of PSM.

Variables: The instrument to measure Public Service Motivation consisted of 15 indicators adapted from Perry’s original suggestions (Perry 1996), Coursey and Pandey’s suggestion for an abridged version (Coursey and Pandey 2007) as well as a new dimension suggested by Vandenabeele (Vandenabeele 2008).

Independent Variables: Task positions of the managers, education and gender of manager, organization and public sector measured by two indexes, priorities in leadership, and other job related motivation factors (aside from PSM.

More detail of variables and test methods will be explained next portion of paper. Briefly stating the findings without getting further into the results and conclusions in this section of the paper, Managers working within the supply sector and the elementary school sector tend to be positively related to PSM commitment. Managers working within the supply sector and the elementary school sector tend to be positively related to PSM commitment.

Looking to the gender and education variables, female managers are significantly negatively related to all measures of PSM and this variable is the second strongest predictor of PSM among the variables included in the analysis. An education as teacher is somewhat significantly negatively related to commitment, while education as engineer is somewhat significantly positively related to compassion. This tends to indicate a presence of PSM in higher educated professionals.

“PSM index, while importance of tasks and influence are significantly positively related to policy and more weakly to the total PSM index.” [41](Hansen, B., 2009).

Wright and Christensen Study Appears to be Most Accurate Study to Date

As prepared for the International Public Service Motivation Research Conference in Bloomington, Indiana on June 7-9, 2009, Bradley Wright and Robert Christensen of the University of North Carolina performed a study using 200 first year law students at two universities.  The purpose of the study was to investigate the origins of public service motivation and its influence on career and job choices. They compared and contrasted psychometric properties of full public service motivation scale (Perry, 1996) and other short term versions (Coursey & Pandy, 2007; Coursey et al, 2008; Kim, 2009). “Second, they investigated the influence of different socio-historical and demographic factors (Perry, 1997) that might serve as public antecedents to PSM. Finally they have shown that PSM can PSM can help predict why law students have chosen a career as such but also have shown why they have interests in internships, initial jobs and careers in the public service sector including federal government, military and non-profit organizations.” [42](Wright, B. & Christensen, R., 2009).

The data was achieved from two top tier law school students. Students were invited to participate in an online survey regarding their career decisions.  The questionnaire was administered in the early Fall of 2008. The point of the timing was to eliminate pre-disposition of students to any potential socialization effects that might discriminate the results of the questionnaire in either the public or private sector. Each student who participated in the study was given an electronic gift certificate. Career services sent out a reminder email and results show that 47% participated in the survey making the sample size at 210 students.

Demographic Variables: Age, gender, marital status, academic ability and or ability. These all have been identified as essential antecedents of public service motivation. (Boudreau, Boswell, Judge & Bretz, 2001).

Measures: To ascertain each participants PSM level, each were asked to complete Perry’s (1996) 24 item-four dimension scale. Questions utilized a 0-7 scale where 0 would be strongly disagree and 6 would be strongly agree. Descriptive statistics for PSM were attraction to policy making, commitment to public interest, self-sacrifice and passion.

Correlates: They also measured in addition to PSM and soicodemographic characteristics of respondents, career variables that should correlate with any valid measure of PSM. They included: family pressure, financial opportunity of a law career, intellectual challenge, interest in helping others and role model influences on law career choice. Of the choices ranking highest were intellectual challenge, financial opportunity and interest in helping others. When asked to rank priority of choice of first job from small firm, medium firm, large firm and government job, both schools chose ranking highest to lowest, medium firm to government at the lowest rank in regards to means of importance to the students along with the judiciary at the bottom end of the scale.

University of North Carolina Professors have ‘replicated and validated PSM data, 2009)

“Previous studies conducted have not been replicated. These studies conducted by Professors at the University of North Carolina have been replicated and are validated.  These studies have used four dimensions which are essential to empirical validation studies.” [43](Wright & Christensen, 2009). The intention was to ‘validate’ the four models and not to create new existing measurement models. Each of the four models was run twice. The first order was considered ‘reflective’ and the second ‘formative’. The second approach was to model the same measure as a higher order factor analysis with the first and second order modelled as ‘reflective’. This is the process of method validation and validating the acquired results. The GFI (good fit index) reached a 0.90 value suggesting a good fit on the first model regardless of the fit on the second. On average the PSM dimension of all four models were at least moderate strength (r> 0.4).

It was found that one PSM short form of (Cousey & Pandey, 2007) had a moderately good fit with the new data produced. Perry & Wise (1990) conceptualization of PSM unfortunately could not be shown to be validated with a good fit (24 item PSM instrument). Perry (1996) initial psychometric work reported some high correlations, however again could not meet the overall fit indices because his results and findings did not meet the new found thresholds. This may have been caused by the use of estimation methods for ordinal data.

“PSM was higher among law students who reported that their career was more influenced by an interest in social service and helping others and lower in students that reported their choice was influenced by financial opportunities. Not any study prior to this study incorporates the use of four dimensions to the standard that these professors have.” [44](Wright & Christensen, 2009). Organizational commitment is presently measured with the Meyer and Allen (1991) conceptualization more than any other. Though Perry is the pioneer of PSM his work though not validated to all four models, should be respected for what it is; the building blocks for PSM research.

Methodology Approaches (A glimpse at results and theory)

Q-Methodology

Methodology refers to a collection of theories, concepts or ideas as they relate to a particular discipline or field of inquiry and includes the researchers’ ideas and more specifically what the researchers’ ontological or epistemological views are. Specifically, used in PSM, is an intensive research technique called Q-methodology to examine the motives of individuals. “Researchers have identified four distinct conceptions of PSM: individuals holding these conceptions are referred to as samaritans, communitarians, patriots, and humanitarians. Q-Methodology is used to examine and clarify PSM construct.” (Brewer, G., Selden, S, Facer, R. II., 2000).

The majority of initial PSM research has examined differences between public and private sector employees on PSM-related dimensions such as reward preferences, the meaning of public service, job involvement, and job satisfaction [45](Rainey 1982; Wittmer 1991; Crewson 1995, 1997; Gabris and Simo 1995). “The second stream of research has attempted to capture and explain the multifaceted dimensions of PSM (Perry 1996, 1997).” (Brewer, G., Selden, S, Facer, R. II., 2000).

[46]Buchanan II (1975) explored PSM differences between public and private sector employees. He made a comparison of PSM with job involvement and measured it using a multiple-item scale. Surprisingly to his initial expectations,” Bruce Buchanan found that public sector managers reported lower levels of job involvement than their private sector counterparts. His ration for this was that public service managers were fed up with bureaucratic political ‘red tape’.”[47] “Hal G. Rainey (1982) reviewed Buchanan’s findings and argued that public managers would score higher if asked more directly about public service.” (Manage Brewer, G., Selden, S, Facer, R. II).Managers of both the private and public sectors were asked to ‘rate’ their ‘desire’ of service. Rainey found that public managers reported much higher scores than private managers. These scores were strongly related to job satisfaction but weakly related to job involvement–further casting doubt on Buchanan’s use of job involvement as a proxy measure of PSM.

“Rainey’s findings were replicated by Baldwin (1984) and Reed (1988), but Rainey (1982, 297) himself acknowledged the major problem with these studies: individuals may have different conceptions of public service.”(Brewer, G., Selden, S, Facer, R. II.). “Importantly, Rainey (1982, 298-299) pointed out that PSM is a broad, multifaceted concept that may be conceived many different ways.” [48](Brewer, G., Selden, S, Facer, R. II., 2000).

Design Methodology

Design Methodology Approach was used in research questioning how PSM observed in Western societies compares to China and to determine the effects of PSM on job satisfaction. “Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis techniques were applied to survey data of 191 public servants in China to investigate the generalisability of Western PSM. Using hierarchical regression analysis, the paper examines the effects of the dimensions of PSM on job satisfaction.” ( Bangcheng L., Ningyu T., Xiaomei Z., 2009). “The results show that the public service motivation observed in the West exists in China, but the generalisability of the construct is limited. Three of the four dimensions of public service motivation (attraction to public policy making, commitment to the public interest, and self-sacrifice) exist in China, but the fourth dimension (compassion) is unconfirmed.” [49](Bangcheng L., Ningyu T., Xiaomei Z., 2009).

Peer Abstract Method

There is a generalization that emotion labour involves the efforts of employees and their willingness to conform to organizational expectations with relation to accepted or appropriate emotional displays. “Grandey (2000) recognizes two themes with common meanings:  (1) individuals are able to regulate their emotions at work; and (2) surface acting (managing the expression of emotions) and deep acting (managing actual emotions) are typical methods for performing emotional labour. Surface acting and deep acting can be to Gross’s (1998) established model of emotional regulation that changes between antecedent-focused regulation and response-focused regulation.” [50](Chih H., 2009).

Most scholars agree on the existence of these two forms of emotion. With surface acting, a person adjusts his/her observable emotions to mask a true emotion and pretend to feel a desired emotion. Both are influenced by frequency of customer interaction, job types and the type of organization and hostility within the workplace. Based on a thorough literature review, [51]DeHart-Davis, Marlowe and Pandey (2006) hypothesize that females are less attracted to policy making than males women have been historically excluded from policymaking as a whole. (Stivers 2000).  If this is true, attraction to policy making reflects a more masculine orientation and there would be a negative association with labour.

Analysis

The analyses of data were performed using ordinary least squares (OLS) regression. Included in the experimentation were personal characteristics such as gender, age, tenure, educational level, and income, as well as job-related variables such as frequency of service interaction and service occupation. Previous study control variables suggested that personal, occupational and situational characteristics may be an antecedent influence of labour at work. There was a higher level reported of deep acting than surface acting emotion. Among the three PSM dimensions, commitment to public interest had the highest average score, followed by compassion. Attraction to public policy making had the lowest score. Consistent with prior findings, correlation to commitment with public service interest and compassion with policy making was not found. Administrators in function/policy areas that involve more authoritative power, such as corrections, code enforcement, fire, law enforcement, and animal control, are less likely to display deep acting.

This research focuses on the specific motivation of civil servants, in particular whether the public nature of the service being delivered can act as a motivating factor.

“Phase 1 – In a first explorative phase, a valid measurement scale of PSM in a Flemish environment will be constructed. This scale is the basis of the rest of the research, as it will be used as both a dependent and an independent variable in the testing of hypothesis 2 and hypothesis 3 respectively. The different empirical guises of a PSM-like concept will be examined in a literature review. This information will be supplemented with the help of focus group research with civil servants and students of particular disciplines, such as law, public administration (also participants of specific training programmes for civil servants). Both of these will provide images of the specific nature of government and the particular tasks involved (Perry 1996). These two sources will be the foundation of attitudinal items and Likert-scales that measure PSM at individual level. The final step in this phase is validation of the content of these items and scales by experts in the field.”

“Phase 2 – In the second phase of the research, the different hypotheses will be tested and the research questions answered by using both quantitative and qualitative data. Hypothesis 1: This will involve statistical validation of PSM as an element of the ‘self’. Both the validity of the concept and the degree of institutionalisation will be assessed in this phase. Confirmatory factor analysis will translate the quantitative data into meaningful results. Hypothesis 2 : This will involve testing the impact of institutions, intermediated by the mechanisms of consequentiality, appropriateness and orthodoxy, on PSM, as an element of the ‘self’. Analysis of variance will be applied to test the different partial hypotheses of this hypothesis. Not only quantitative data, but also qualitative data (information on the institutions and the mechanisms) is necessary in order to test this hypothesis. Analysis of documents and in-depth interviews with key-persons can provide this information. Hypothesis 3 : This will involve testing motivated behaviour as a result of the interaction of ‘self’ and institutions. Depending on the operationalisation of the dependent variables (behaviour), regression and variance analysis will be the main statistical techniques used here.”

“Data collection – The quantitative data will be gathered by means of a survey in Flanders, building on our previous research. Because of the public administration focus, with the emphasis on the professional institution, this will be the structure of the data gathering strategy. The general strategy is the comparison of several pairs of organisations, combining a public and and a private organisation (controlling for the task) (Bourantas 1999; Emmert and Crow 1987). The index of the public nature of the organisation will warrant a sufficient variability when matching organisations, while offering information on the institutions as independent variables. Examples of such pairs are: public transport vs. private transport companies, police vs. private security organisations, government selection office vs. private selection company and the ministry of finance vs. auditing firms.
A random (stratified, cf. infra) sample of individual oberservations will be drawn within each of these organisations in order to collect the data. To meet the demands of the statistical techniques (especially confirmatory factor analysis), a sample of 200 to 400 observations is a minimum (Hoyle 2000). The data will be gathered by means of postal surveys or e-mail surveys (if possible). A stratification of the sample will be necessary to measure the effect of hierarchical level within the organisation on Public Service Motivation. [52](Hondeghem A., 2008).

Findings

The settings are the most dominant predictors of the PSM dimensions. The study of antecedents affecting public service motivation provides some evidence to show that the PSM of public employees is mainly the result of the organisational environment surrounding them. The motivational context variables particularly those related to the organisational

The findings suggest that public sector management has the task of creating a proper and appropriate climate for its employees. Furthermore, PSM has generated particular interest because it is perceived or assumed to have a positive impact on the job behaviour of individuals in particular, job satisfaction and fulfilment, and their respective level of performance. It is therefore important that public sector organisations find ways of encouraging PSM amongst its employees.

Research generally indicates that public employees “talk the talk,” but do they also “walk the walk” of the public service motive (PSM)? Are public service employees more likely than others to engage in public service activities? The behavioural implications of PSM are addressed by studying the involvement in charitable activities of public, nonprofit, and private workers. [53](Houston D., 2009).

In fact, an increasing number of empirical studies suggest that public employees differ from their private sector counterparts with respect to work-related values and needs. “For example, Wittmer (1991) analyzed differences in the rankings of eight reward categories for a sample of 210 employees in public, private, and hybrid organizations.” He found that public and private employees differed significantly with respect to preferences for higher pay, helping others, and status. “He concluded that “the public service ethic appears to be alive and well . . .” and . . . “extends beyond core public organizations (government) to more hybrid groups” (1991, 380).”

“Wittmer’s findings reinforce the results of earlier empirical research by Rawls, Ulrich, and Nelson (1975), Rainey (1982), and Nalbandian and Edwards (1983). The cumulative pattern of findings is consistent with Perry and Porter’s (1982) conclusion that the public motivational context is indeed different from the private.” [54](Perry J. 1997).

“As previously noted in the section on motivation, studies have shown that intrinsic interest in a task is often lowered when extrinsic rewards are linked to the activity. Accordingly, some of the research predicated on the hypothesis that PSM is positively related to performance levels also predicts that extrinsic reward systems should have a negative effect on individuals with high PSM.” Assuming that individuals with a service motive are attracted to government sector jobs, it should not seem surprising that two decades worth of experiments on pay-for-performance in the public sector have not worked effectively thus far. “Alonso and Lewis found no evidence that the link between material rewards and performance mattered any less to those with high PSM. Indeed, Lewis and Frank found evidence that the more strongly respondents valued high income, the more likely they were to prefer government employment. Conversely, only 16 percent of non-profit workers cited their pay checks as a reason to come to work, as compared to 31 percent of federal workers and 44 percent of private sector employees. Further evidence in support of high PSM levels for non-profit employees is noted by the 61 percent who get a measure of satisfaction from accomplishing something worthwhile; here the federal numbers are a respectable 47 percent, while the private employees again finish lower (41 percent).” “Non-profit employees come to work for the right reasons and have jobs that give them a chance to make a difference,” Light says. “They care deeply about what they do, have deep pride in their organization, and show great confidence in the sector’s ability to accomplish something worthwhile for their communities and their country.” [55](“A Motive to Serve”, 2006).

PSM theory is very appropriate for public sector since its influences on organizational behaviour can be used to improve the performance of public employees and ultimately overall performance of the public organizations.

“There is an emphasis in the PSM literature that 7 federal governments are losing its attractiveness as a potential employer and the federal service faces several obstacles in attracting, retaining, and motivating high-quality employees (Naff and Crum, 1999; Alonso and Lewis, 2001).” (Iliei O., 2007).  In such an environment, PSM theory can help public sector managers to attract, retain and motivate high-quality employees. “Because the quality of the employees is a significant factor in determining the performance of that organization, the acquisition functions of recruitment and selection play a crucial role in determining the success or failure of the organization (Mann, 2006).” (Iliei O., 2007).  Thus, attracting employees with high PSM can improve the performance of the public sector organizations. “Furthermore, taking into consideration that employees with low PSM are more likely to consider leaving the government (Naff and Crum, 1999) and there is a positive relationship between PSM and organizational commitment (Crewson, 1997), PSM is an important factor with regard to retention of employees.” (Iliei O., 2007).  As for the motivating the public sector employees, the PSM theory emphasizes that motivational tools of public employees are different from the those of private sector employees as mentioned above. Private sector reward systems typically are built on the primacy of extrinsic rewards and may…”crowd out” the intrinsic rewards that motivate public service employees states Houston (2005). If public-sector jobs are intrinsically more meaningful, public sector managers can use this advantage in motivating its work force (Perry and Wise, 1990). Thus, PSM theory provides us with valuable insights in order to understand how to attract, retain and motivate public sector employees.

“PSM theory can also be applicable to the non-profit sector. Houston (2006) asserts that beyond the public–private distinction, the behaviour of individuals in non-profit organizations is more likely to be characterized by PSM than that of those in business.” Houston (2006) also highlights that this is because nonprofits are likely to have a strong public service mission and to have environments that more closely resemble the messy nature of public organizations. [56](Iliei O., 2007).

“Perry and Vandebeele (2008) hypothesized that the theory PSM relationships are moderated and/or mediated by self-regulation via organizational factors and saliency of an activity to individual self-identity.[57](Coursey, 2009).  “The data for this study were collected in Phase IV of the National Administrative Studies Project (NASP-IV), a multi-method study which is also a key part a web-based survey administered to 3,316 City Managers, Assistant Managers and Department Heads of U.S. cities of population 50,000 and over. The theoretical population of interest for NASP-IV was comprised of senior managers (both general and functional) in US local government jurisdictions with populations over 50,000. The general managers included the city manager and assistant/deputy city managers.

Functional managers included in the study headed key departments.” (Coursey, 2009).

International City County provided the sampling schemed structure for the research. “Each respondent was given a study website code to access the internet site. The survey generated responses from 1,538 local public managers, for a total response rate of 46.4%. The mean age of respondents was 51.4 with an interquartile range of 10 (25th percentile being 47 and 75th percentile being 57).” (Coursey, 2009).  “A sizable majority were male (70.6%), white (85.9%), highly educated (more than 60% with graduate degrees), and well compensated (68.3% with salaries over $100,000).” (Coursey, 2009).  Managers comprised 38% including general managers and of the tested subjects managed specific city departments and/or functions. “This distribution of functional specialization of respondents closely matched the distribution of functional specializations in the sample.” (Coursey, 2009).

Analysis

“Latent variable analysis (structural equations) was used to test the model via LISREL 8.7. Separate measurement models for each variable were evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis as well as exploratory approaches such as factor and principal component analysis.” (Coursey, 2009).  There was reasonable measurement reliability and validity shown.  Perry and Vandebeele’s (2008) reformulation of PSM theory suggests, that PSM varies by employee’s  perceived relevancy of an action, behaviour, attitude, and so forth to PSM values, personal PSM level and perceived commitment to an organization. . “An individual’s evaluation of citizen participation activities, a task closely tied to PSM values, displayed a complex relationship with PSM based on their perception of the importance of citizen participation in their organization.” (Coursey, 2009).  Specifically, while PSM had an overall direct relationship with citizen participation evaluation, the relationship was stronger as its organizational importance increased.

This following PSM study attempts to contribute to previous PSM studies by “Perry and Wise (1990b) by exploring the antecedents of motivational inclinations among public servants in a context not previously examined in empirical research. Perry and Wise elaborated on empirical measures of PSM (Perry 1996 &1997) and they were the first to analyze the antecedents of public service motivation.” [58](Hansen, 2009).  Hansen chose 295 American respondents from different public sector profiles for the research and measured PSM on ‘five dimensions’ rather than the typical past ‘four dimensions’ used by researchers.

“Perry research suggested that four variables-closeness to God, parental modelling, education, and age where significant in at least one equation in the direction predicted, while religious worldview and parental relations where the only variables not significantly related to any of the measures of PSM.”(Hansen, 2009). In a study of PSM from a European context of 2135 public employees at Malta (Camilleri 2007) Camilleri used the entire PSM measure suggested by Perry (1996).   Camilleri found that the PSM of public employees is mainly the result of the organisational environment surrounding them. Moynihan and Pandey (Moynihan and Pandey 2007) focused on organizational antecedents for Public Service Motivation in their analysis. Using a sample of 274 American top-level public information and communication program administrators they analyzed variations in their Public Service Motivation measured by indexes of attraction to policy making, commitment to public interest/civic duty, and an overall PSM index, made up of the former two scales.

One or more measures of PSM where found to be significantly related to their measures of education, professional identification, red tape, reform orientation, hierarchical orientation, length of organizational membership and gender. The most recent study complied from Perry and Wise’s study was a  structural model that  proposed that gender, level of education and income have an indirect impact on PSM through volunteering, while family socialization, religious activity and youth volunteering both have a direct and indirect impact on PSM.

Wright and Christen’s study appears to be the most accurate 5 dimensional study to date. “A series of logistic regression analyses were conducted using financial and service helping statistics in order to predict sector employment at three points of time while controlling variable such as race, gender, age, marital status, academic achievement and law school prestige.” [59](Wright, 2009).  Consistent with the hypothesis, the respondents with the highest interests in social serving and helping others were most likely to be employed in the public sector area.

Conclusions and Recommendations

“In the latest PSM research conducted by (Wright, 2007) at the University of North Carolina, with relation to PSM with private and public sector attorneys’ it was found that a strong interest in helping others and public service does not necessarily predict the employment sector of lawyers’ first legal job [60](1a); though it does increase the likelihood of hold other public service jobs.” [61](2a). In Crewson’s (1997) analysis of the General Social Survey it was found that public employees had significantly higher PSM than private employees after only three years of employment which is consistent with past empirical conclusions of Perry and Wise (1990b). Crewson 1997, Gabris & Simo 1995, Maidani’s 1991 & Schuster 1974 studies respectively have failed to find any differences in motivations for monetary reasons. “When and under what condition employee PSM affects employee attraction and retention would be the more appropriate question to analyze for the purpose of this study rather than whether PSM affects employee attraction and retention.”[62] (Wright 2007).  PSM becomes more salient after an employee takes their first public service position and finds certain organizational job expectations to be less satisfying than they had initially expected. Often lack of motivation comes from lack of job skills and pressure to pay off school debts and a respondent may not realize his/her true public service motivation. PSM plays a different motivational factor at different segments in an individual’s career. The need to retain knowledge or skill and attraction to managerial positions play a significant role in PSM motivations in different stages of an individual’s career choices.

Perry and Vandebeele (2008) conducted a study on the relationship between PSM and outcomes of citizen participation efforts. “Data was obtained from a survey of local government managers (1,538 at a response rate of 46.4%).” (Coursey, 2009).  The theory suggests that PSM is invoked by individuals by their self-perception of whether the organization is in compliance with their self-identity or values. This can be simply based on legal requirements rather than organizational choice. “Perry and Vandenabeele (2008) argue that PSM would be less invoked in such cases as an individual would see the activity as not necessarily representative of the organization’s values: the activity is forced and not by choice. [63](Coursey, 2009).

“Surprisingly research shows that PSM should be polarized.” (Coursey, 2009). Essentially what that means is if an employee has a low PSM, there is an activity they see related to PSM would be adversative to their values. “Such individuals will not, you would expect, simply discount it — they would react negatively and just as strongly as high PSM people would be encouraging. Indeed, that is what we found!” (Coursey, 2009). Those with relatively low PSM had the strongest unenthusiastic relationship with citizen participation evaluation as its perceived directorial importance amplified. Conversely, those with high PSM actually became more accommodating with greater importance. There was no evidence of a mediating role for an employee’s individual fit with the work environment compared to another worker’s fit (value congruence). “This has been a major variable in previous studies and theory by (Wright and Pandey, 2008)”. (Coursey, 2009). “In this study it was presumed individuals would connect citizen participation activities to values associated with PSM. While this is reasonable, it is not assured and likely varies somewhat by individuals in part due to program differences.” (Coursey, 2009).

Initially PSM as developed by Perry and Wise (1990) and later emphasized by Rainey (1982) that PSM is multi-faceted and difficult to measure and define, Mann (2006) points out two decades later that the concept still remains elusive. It is not uncommon to still find contradictory definitions and analogies related to as such. PSM has influences on organizational behaviour and can be used to improve employee performance and overall performance of public organizations. Federal government is losing its attractiveness and ability to motivate high quality employees as per research conducted by Crum 1999 and Alonso & Lewis 2001). The qualify of the employee is a significant factor in determining the performance of the organization (Mann, 2006). Furthermore, taking into consideration that employees with low PSM are more likely to consider leaving the government (Naff and Crum, 1999) and there is a positive relationship between PSM and organizational commitment (Crewson, 1997), PSM is an important factor with regard to retention of employees. As for the motivating the public sector employees, the PSM theory emphasizes that motivational tools of public employees are different from the those of private sector employees as mentioned above. Private sector reward systems typically are built on the primacy of extrinsic rewards and may „„crowd out?? the intrinsic rewards that motivate public service employees (Houston, 2005).

“The object of the Chinese PSM research is to investigate how generalisable the public service motivation (PSM) observed in Western society is to China and to examine the effects of public service motivation on job satisfaction.” [64](Liu, Tang, & Zhu, 2008).

“Using hierarchal regression analysis, the results show that the public service motivation observed in the West exists in China, but the generalisability of the construct is limited. Three of the four dimensions of public service motivation (attraction to public policy making, commitment to the public interest, and self-sacrifice) exist in China, but the fourth dimension (compassion) is unconfirmed.” [65](Liu, Tang, & Zhu, 2008).

Hansen studied the antecedents of PSM using five measures. “His research was based on previous research of Perry and Wise (1990b) and an added dimension which consisted of Attraction to policy making; Commitment to the public interest; Compassion; Self-sacrifice and finally a composite measure of the former four.” (Hansen, 2009).  “The recent study reviewed here is based on a sample of 526+ American national volunteer award winners recognized for their contributions to the public good of their communities (Perry et al. 2008).” [66](Hansen, 2009). Managers working within the supply and elementary school sector tend to be positively related to PSM. Managers handling other social tasks tend to be negatively related to PSM. Managers within the accounting and financial sector tend to be negatively related to PSM and commitment in general. Female managers are negatively related to all aspects of PSM.

The Camilleri European PSM study has shown that monetary rewards are not the key antecedents to a successful employee motivational force. Market management tools would improve efficiency in a superior logic.

James Perry, Annie Hondegham, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven & Lois Recascino Wise of the University of Indiana revisited the evolution of PSM research by Perry and Wise (1990b) as appeared in [67]Public Administration Review (1990). “The review research administration, social and behavioural sciences at its best.” (Perry, Hondegham, Leuven & Wise, 2009). Future research and quasi experimental design was extensively discussed in the research paper. “It was noted that in a subsequent analysis of public service motivation and government effectiveness, Rainey and Steinbauer (1999) offer a more general definition of public service motivation.” (Perry, Hondegham, Leuven & Wise, 2009). They refer to public service motivation as a ‘general’ altruistic motivation to serve the interests of the community of people, a state, a nation or humankind.  Vandebeele’s research in Europe adds to the definition of PSM that of ‘values’ as a component of ‘institutional identity’. Public service definitions invoke both self-sacrifice and altruism according to Perry and Wise and Rainey and Steinbauer. Motives of altruism should be central to relevance of the definition of PSM Piliavin and Charng (1990). (Perry, Hondegham, Leuven & Wise, 2009).

“Economists have begun to contribute important research about public service motivation‘s relationships to attraction-selection-attrition. [68]Grout, Ratcliffe and Windmeijer (2007) (as reported in Francois and Vlassopoulos, 2007) studied donated labour as measured by unpaid overtime in caring industries in the UK. Grout et al found ?that people with high public service motivation in caring industries are more likely to move to public sector or non-profit firms….[69] (Francois and Vlassopoulos, 2007).” (Perry, Hondegham, Leuven & Wise, 2009).

“Georgellis, Iossa and Tabvuma (2008) used data from the first fourteen waves of the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS) covering the period 1991-2004. They concluded that individuals move to the public sector because of the higher likelihood of fulfilling their public service motivation.” (Perry, Hondegham, Leuven & Wise, 2009).

The logic of the person-environment fit models is that persons are likely to perform according to their primary nature if they are well adapted within their environment. A happy camper makes a productive camper! Bright (2008), found a well-built, significant connection between public service motivation and person-organization fit. Self-reported individual performance have been used by Naff and Crum, 1999; Alonzo and Lewis, 2001; Bright, 2007; Leisink and Steijn, 2009; and Vandenabeele, 2009.  Naff and Crum (1999) found an affirmative relationship between public service motivation and self-reported performance appraisals among U.S. federal employees. “Alonzo and Lewis were able to replicate Naff and Crum‘s findings that public service motivation had a optimistic impact on performance ratings. Alonzo and Lewis were unable to find an affiliation between valuing service to others and elevated ratings in the 1991 data set.” (Perry, Hondegham, Leuven & Wise, 2009).

“The third of these studies (Leisink and Steijn, 2009) analyzed the effects of public service motivation on three performance-related outcome variables, commitment, willingness to exert effort and perceived job performance in a sample of 4130 Dutch public employees from all levels and a variety of functions.” [70](Perry, Hondegham, Leuven & Wise, 2009).

The person-organization fit between public service motivation and the outcome variables were not confirmed.

In conclusion, there is hope because Francois (2000) demonstrates when public service motivation exists; circumstances can be fashioned for government official procedure to better obtain exertion from employees than a standard profit maximizing firm. This is projected on the basis that if government organizations are inhabited by high public service motivation employees, then government stipulation of certain public services is resourceful because it allows for the service ethic to be spoken and lowers the cost to taxpayers. That if government organizations are occupied by high public service motivation employees, then government purchase of certain public services is capable because it allows for the service ethic to be articulated and lowers the charge to taxpayers. (Perry, Hondegham, Leuven & Wise, 2009).

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[60] We recognize here assistance from Joanne Martin from the American Bar Foundation for her assistance in using and understanding the data.

[61] Et al.

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