Factors Affecting Infant’s Nutrition, Research Paper Example

Benefits of Breastfeeding over Formula and Factors Affecting Infant’s Nutrition

Nurture and nutrition during infancy can have lasting effects on an individual’s health. Society has become more aware of the crucial nature of infant nutrition in recent years. Indeed, in The United States, infant nutrition is now so important that the government has chosen to invest in it with programs like WIC (Women, Infants and Children) program, which provide free, healthy foods for mothers with infants and small children and their children. Whether or not women receive aid from such programs, they must make a great number of choices when feeding their children and it can be very hard for them to decide.  This is particularly true regarding the decision between breastfeeding and bottle feeding. If mothers are to make an informed choice, they and their health providers must be made aware of the benefits of breastfeeding over formula feeding.

New mothers often run into dilemmas when deciding how to feed their children. While the idea that “breast is best” is prevalent in many hospitals, formula advertisements claim that formula supplements can increase intelligence and healthy growth. Meanwhile, both mothers who choose to breastfeed and those who choose to use infant formula face criticism from those who prefer the other method.  Sarah Butters, a non-nursing mother, says she has “trouble admitting it, because no one admits it,” but she hates breastfeeding. She says she is angry that mothers are under so much pressure to do it.  (Groskop, 2009). Other mothers complain of being given dirty looks while trying to breastfeed. According to Groskop, one British Academic claimed that the debate over nursing and formula feeding had become a war. Working mothers often face the worst conflicts. Those who think of pumping milk for their children often find it hard to pump enough milk to sufficiently feed their children. They are sometimes rebuked by co-workers for trying. Although the government is supporting new efforts to introduce nursing areas into workplaces, women often lack a private, sanitary place to pump milk. Therefore, working mothers often find it easier to feed their children infant formula.

Yet there are risks associated with infant formula that mothers should be aware of before deciding to use it as a replacement for or a supplement to mother’s milk. Andersen et al observe that proper infant food preparation can reduce both infant morbidity and mortality. They describe

How infant formula can become contaminated with fecal bacteria.  This can lead to sickness and even death. Andersen et al also observe that infant formula that has either too high or too low of a concentration can harm infants and young children (Andresen, Rollins, Sturm, Conana, & Greiner, 2007). Breastfeeding infants avoids all of these problems. Because the child’s food is immediately available, with breastfeeding, it does not run the risk of fecal contamination during preparation. Furthermore, because breast milk already contains the proper amount of nutrients, mothers who breastfeed do not run the risk of providing too great or too little of any ingredient.

Bongers et al observe that there are other risks to formula-feeding as well. According to them, constipation is more common in formula-fed babies than breastfed infants. They argue that studying the different structures of formula and breast milk may help solve the problem (Bongers, de Lorijin, Reitsma, Groeneweg, Taminiau, & Benninga, 2007). Respected Italian epidemiologist Adriano Cattaneo also voices concern over the dangers of formula feeding and argues that simply saying that breastfeeding is best is not a strong enough statement. Parents, he says, should be made aware that formula feeding carries risks with it. Among these risks are the following: increased risk of lower repertory infection and greater chance of hospitalization due to diarrhea. (Cattaneo, 2008).

Yet the ills Cattaneo mentions are tame compared to those the Canadian Medical Association Journal (CMAJ) details. According to Cattaneo, some pro-biotic formulas, containing Bifidobacteria lactis can be deadly, as they advise parents not to heat bottles above 40°C, as such heating might “compromise cultures.” But, says CMAJ, The World Health Organization recommends the following:

That infant formula be mixed with water at a minimum temperature of 70°C to minimizes the risk of potentially deadly infections (brain, blood and intestinal) caused by Enterobacter sakazakii, a type of bacteria that has been found in powdered infant formula.

This, according to INFACT Canada Director Elizabeth Sterken, is “unconscionable,” because it places the life and health of infants below marketing goals.

On the other hand, Nestle argues that its pro-biotic formulas are safe, even at low temperatures. It argues that the WHO’s guidelines are written for less sanitary countries, where bacterial risks are much greater. Nestle may have a point, but if it is wrong, the consequences are very grave. At risk is the life and well-being of a child. Mothers must decide whether or not they wish to risk compromising bacterial strains, or their children’s lives (Collier, 2009).

Even if mothers are careful when preparing formula, they run the risk of giving their children contaminated products. In China, 60 babies were hospitalized when a company sold fake formula containing melanine to stores. Many of the infants who drank the formula developed kidney stones. Although no infant formula produced in China can be sold in United States stores legally, the FDA previously found that Chinese-made formula had been sold in at least one store illegally. Unfortunately, it is hard for mothers to know exactly where infant formula comes from or what it contains (Weise, 2008). Mothers who choose to breastfeed have no such problem. They know exactly where their infants’ food comes from and can be sure it is safe.

If knowing the risks involved in choosing infant formula over breast milk is not enough, knowing the great benefits of breastfeeding may help mother make better decisions for their children. Breastfed babies are more likely to develop healthy eating habits. According to Noble and Emmet, babies who are breastfed are more likely than formula fed babies to prefer fruits and vegetables (Noble & Emmet, 2006)

Furthermore, Colombo et al observe that breastfeeding for long periods of time can help children diagnosed with cystic fibrosis. It can strengthen their development and lower the risk of declining pulmonary functions. Colombo et al note that breastfeeding has sometimes been discouraged for children with cystic fibrosis, because of problems with metabolism, but these, they say, can be countered with supplements (Colombo, et al., 2007).

Godfrey and Meyers point out that breastfeeding is not only better for the baby, but that it has benefits for the mother as well. They praise breastfeeding for its cost-effectiveness, ability to decrease child mortality and its accessibility. They also note that it reduces the risk of breast cancer, ovarian cancer and type 2 diabetes. Similarly, Elaine Burns of Women’s Health & Midwivery observes that women who successfully establish breastfeeding routines experience “overwhelming joy.”  (Burns, 2009) Furthermore, according to New York Amsterdam News, mothers who breastfeed can reduce their risk of developing breast cancer4% with every year they breastfeed. (Breastfeeding 101: What every Black woman needs to know., 2009) Pikwer et al also observe that breastfeeding reduces the risk of rheumatoid arthritis.

Furthermore, they say, “There is a growing body of literature suggesting that many adult diseases have origins in the fetal and uterine environment.” (Pikwer, Bergstrom, & Nilsson, 2009)          Meanwhile, Mayo Clinic Specialist Jay Hoecker observes that “the benefits of breast-feeding are well established.” (Hoecker, 2010, p. 1) Breastmilk, he says, not only contains the right balance of nutrients for an infant, but also contains antibodies to help the child’s immune system. Hoecker recommends that women breast feed their babies until they are a year old (Hoecker, 2010).

Meanwhile, Owen et al of the American Society of Nutrition, argue that breast-feeding infants can lead to lower blood cholesterol in the long-term. This is particularly important, they say, because coronary heart disease is the most common cause of death in America. Giving infants a head-start in the battle against cholesterol, then, might increase their lifespan (Owen, et al., 2008). Furthermore, Metzger and McDade, writing for the American Journal of Human Biology, claim to have “evaluated the relation between body mass index (BMI) and infant feeding using linear-, logistic-, and sibling fixed-effects regression models.” The results of their study showed that breastfeeding could be used as obesity prevention (Metzger & McDade, 2010).

Furthermore, according to Sears and Sears, breastfed babies develop larger, rounder nasal  passages that help them to breathe better than their formula fed contemporaries and that breastfed babies’ hearts may be stronger as well (Sears & Sears, 2000).

Yet, according to Badger et al from the Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center and the Departments of Pediatrics, formula feeding does have some benefits. The team used a longitudinal study which compared breastfed children and infants to those fed with formula, along with along with studies breastfed and formula fed pigs to determine whether or not soy formula hurts infant development. They found instead that infants fed soy formula developed relatively normally and that pigs actually received developmental benefits. Among these was increased bone density (Badger, et al., 2009).

Hoecker also observes that women who rely solely on breastfeeding may want to give their children Vitamin D supplements to help increase bone density. Many infant formulas contain Vitamin D; therefore, formula fed babies sometimes have greater bone density (Hoecker, 2010). Hoecker also observes that some mothers are unable to lactate enough to feed their babies. This is particularly true of working mothers who are unable to pump sufficient amounts of milk. In these cases, infant formula is invaluable. Although the use of infant formula is not ideal, it does provide infants with essential nutrients and it is far better than malnutrition or starvation (Hoecker, 2010).

Meanwhile, the use of infant formula can decrease a mother’s physical discomfort. Some women experience nipple pain and trauma when breastfeeding. Indeed, according to The Australian Nursing Journal, “Breastfeeding can cause pain and trauma to a mother’s nipples which can bring an end to breastfeeding.” (The Management of Nipple Pain and/or Trauma Associated with Breastfeeding, 2009) They are, says The Journal, in fact, “the most significant factors impacting on breastfeeding in the first weeks of motherhood.” Nipple pain can range from a feeling of discomfort to excruciating pain and trauma. Mothers’ nipples can become cracked, sore, bloody or even blistered. They can swell and some can have fissures.

A mother suffering from these conditions might have good reason to switch to formula-feeding. However, The Journal details several methods of treatment for such problems. Solutions include the following: Applying warm water compresses, breastmilk, or tea-bags to the area, use of lanolin, aerosol spray (not recommended), and the use of dressings, modified lanolin ointment, collagenase and dexpanthenol (The Management of Nipple Pain and/or Trauma Associated with Breastfeeding, 2009). Nevertheless, women often still experience pain when breastfeeding.

Furthermore, some of the major objections to the use of formula have recently been challenged. For instance, formula critics used to complain that high-protein formula lead to greater body weight. Koletzko et al, from the European Childhood Obesity Trial Study Group, found that this was true, but that the weight gain only lasted until age two – not long enough to result in any major weight problems (Koletzko & von Kries).

Still, the benefits of breastfeeding are much greater than those of formula feeding. For instance, breast-fed babies generally have better digestion than formula-fed  infants (Anonymous, 2009) Marsha Walker, in her book, Breastfeeding Management for the Clinician : Using the Evidence, addresses clinicians, argues that  breastfeeding is natural and far superior to formula (Walker, 2006). Human milk, says Walker, is unlike anything else. It is, she says “a highly complex and unique fluid that is strikingly different from the milks of other species, including the cow.” (Walker, 2006) Infant formula, says Walker, is no substitute.  Indeed, she says the following:

Hundreds of human milk components interact synergistically to fulfill the dual function of breastmilk, nourishing and protecting infants and young children who are breastfed or who receive human milk. The addition of ingredients into infant formula derived from nonhuman sources and pre- and probiotics cannot duplicate the health, cognitive, and developmental outcomes seen in infants  fed human milk, no matter what formula advertisements might claim.

One of the unique features of human breastmilk, Walker observes is that its protein content adapts to the growth of a child.  Indeed, breastmilk constantly changes to meet the needs of the baby. The milk of mothers who deliver before term is different than that of mothers who deliver at term. Furthermore, the mother’s milk changes every day to meet the needs of her child, changing in fat content and sometimes in composition. For instance, says Walker, Lactoferrin decreases substantially after the first few days (Walker, 2006). Because breastmilk is so complex and so unique, it produces a whole host of complex and unique benefits.

According to Schack-Neilsen and Michaelsen, although formula fed infants are sometimes taller during childhood, breastfed infants tend to become taller adults. Furthermore, Non-Breastfed infants under two months of age are six times more likely to die from acute respiratory infection and diarrhea. Meanwhile, Breastfed infants exhibit a better response to vaccinations than do formula fed infants and breastfed infants in need of kidney transplants have better rejection rates than those who are formula fed. Furthermore, according to Sears and Sears, the DHA found in breastmilk seems to improve an infant’s eyesight (Sears & Sears, 2000).

Sears and Sears also observe that breastmilk is more easily digestible than formula, because it is more gentle on small intestines (Sears & Sears, 2000).

Some of these benefits last after breast-feeding is over. Indeed, according to Schack-Nielsen and Michaelsen, A breastfed infant’s immune system is better able to defend against infectious disease even after breast-feeding stops. Children are born with immature immune systems and breastmilk bolster s the immune system, therefore, children who are breastfed tend to have stronger immune systems than their counterparts. Some studies also suggest that breast feeding can protect against atopic diseases such as asthma. Others find that promoting exclusive breastfeeding can help combat pneumonia in infants and small children (Niessen, Hove, Hilderink, Weber, Mulholland, & Ezzati, 2009). Still others suggest that breastfeeding can protect against Chrohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Breastfeeding can also increase cognitive function. Indeed, according to Schack-Nielsen and Michaelsen, the longer an infant is breastfed, the better he scores in cognitive tests (Schack-Nielsen & Michaelsen, 2007).

Famed Dr. William Sears and his wife Martha claim that breastfeeding is “the most important brain-and-body-building gift can give your child.” (Sears & Sears, 2000) They credit breastfeeding with raising babies’ IQ, cutting medical bills, making the babies eyes, heart, intestines and organs perform better, combating ear infections, diaper rash and upset stomachs.

Meanwhile, they say, the DHA in formula promotes brain growth. Furthermore, they say, breastmilk contains “smarter sugars,” called glucose and galacrose. Galacrose, they say, “is a valuable nutrient for brain-tissue development.” (Sears & Sears, 2000)Furthermore, say Sears and Sears, scientists have discovered that animals with the highest amount of lactose in their milk. Human milk has one of the highest concentrations in all mammal life. While some infant formulas do, generally, contain lactose, they do not have as high levels as human milk does. Furthermore, some soy-based formulas are “lactose free.” (Sears & Sears, 2000)

New benefits to breastfeeding seem to be discovered every day, meanwhile, the risks associated with breastfeeding are very low. Meanwhile, although there are some benefits to using infant formula, most tend to be small compared to the incredible benefits of breastfeeding. Formula rarely, if ever, offers any nutritional benefits to infants that breastfeeding cannot. Furthermore, the risks associated with formula feeding are many, varied and often quite serious. Breastfeeding an infant rarely makes the child sick and generally cannot kill him. Indeed, breastfeeding creates the perfect balance of nutrients for an infant. Formula, when prepared improperly, contaminated, or given in the wrong amounts, can threaten a child’s health or even his life.

Furthermore, even when a child is given uncontaminated formula properly, he will not receive the nutritional benefits that a breastfed child receives. Because the structure and make-up of breastmilk is so complex, formula cannot come anywhere close to mimicking it. Therefore, children who receive formula in place of breastmilk often do not mature properly and are put at increased risk of disease, infection and weight problems. Their cognitive abilities are not optimal and they may become malnourished.  Breastfeeding, then, seems to be superior to formula feeding, both in terms of safety and nutrition.

Works Cited

Andresen, E., Rollins, N., Sturm, A., Conana, N., & Greiner, T. (2007, December 6). Bacterial Contamination and Over-Dilution of Commercial Infant Formula Prepared by HIV-Infected Mothers in a Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) Programme, South Africa. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics Advance Access , 1-6.

Anonymous. (2009, August 30). Dear EarthTalk: What are the pros and cons of feeding babies formula versus breast milk? And if I purchase formula, should I spend the extra money on the organic variety. EarthTalk .

Badger, T. M., Gilchrist, J. M., Pivik, T. R., Andres, A., Shankar, K., Chen, J.-R., et al. (2009). The health implications of soy infant formula. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 89 (5), 1668S-1672S.

Bongers, M. E., de Lorijin, F., Reitsma, J. B., Groeneweg, M., Taminiau, J. A., & Benninga, M. A. (2007). The clinical effect of a new infant formula in term infants with constipation: a double-blinded, randomized cross-over trial. Nutrition Journal , 6 (8), 1475-2891.

Breastfeeding 101: What every Black woman needs to know. (2009). New York Amsterdam News , 100 (19), S6-S6,.

Burns, E. (2009). Let women express themselves – breastfeeding study. Women’s Health & Midwivery , 17 (2), 44-45.

Cattaneo, A. (2008). The benefits of breastfeeding or the harm of formula feeding? Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health , 44, 1-2.

Collier, R. (2009). Squabble over risks of probiotic infant formula. Canadian Medical Association Journal , 181 (3/4), e46-e47.

Colombo, C., Costantini, D., Zazzeron, L., Faelli, N., Russo, M. C., Ghisleni, D., et al. (2007). Benefits of breastfeeding in cystic fibrosis: A single-centre follow-up survey. Acta Pædiatrica , 96, 1228–1232.

Godfrey, J. R., & Meyers, D. (2009). Toward Optimal Health: Maternal Benefits of Breastfeeding. JOURNAL OF WOMEN’S HEALTH , 18 (9), 1307-1310.

Groskop, V. (2009, July 18). Let the breastfeeding rebellion begin. The Guardian , 2009.

Hoecker, J. (2010, April 8). Breast-feeding vs. formula: What’s right for your baby? Retrieved May 27, 2010, from Mayo Clinic: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/breast-feeding/FL00133

Koletzko, B., & von Kries. (n.d.). Lower protein in infant formula is associated with lower weight up to.

Metzger, M., & McDade, T. W. (2010). Breastfeeding as Obesity Prevention in the United States: A Sibling Difference Model. American Journal of Human Biology , 22 (3), 291-296.

Niessen, L., Hove, A., Hilderink, H., Weber, M., Mulholland, K., & Ezzati, M. (2009). Comparative impact assessment of child pneumonia interventions. Bulletin of the World Health Organization , 87 (6), 472-480.

Noble, S., & Emmet, P. (2006). Differences in weaning practice, food and nutrient intake between breast- and formula-fed 4-month-old infants in England. Journal of Human Nutrition and Diatetics , 19 (4), 303-313.

Owen, C., Whincup, P. H., Kaye, S. J., Martin, R. M., Smith, G. D., Cook, D. G., et al. (2008). Does initial breastfeeding lead to lower blood cholesterol in adult life? A quantitative review of the evidence1–3. Am J Clin Nutr , 88, 305–14.

Pikwer, M., Bergstrom, U., & Nilsson, J. (2009). Breast feeding, but not use of oral contraceptives, is associated with a reduced risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Current Medical Literature: Rheumatology , 526-30.

Schack-Nielsen, L., & Michaelsen, K. F. (2007). dvances in Our Understanding of the Biology of Human Milk and Its Effects on the Offspring. The Journal of Nutrition , 137 (2), 503S-510S.

Sears, M., & Sears, W. (2000). The breastfeeding book: everything you need to know about nursing your child . New York: Little, Brown and Company.

The Management of Nipple Pain and/or Trauma Associated with Breastfeeding. (2009). Australian Nursing Journal , 32-25.

Walker, M. (2006). Breastfeeding Management for the Clinician : Using the Evidence. Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Inc.

Weise, E. (2008). FDA warns baby formula could be contaminated. USA Today .