Fall of the Republic and the Birth of the Roman Empire, Essay Example

The First Demagogues – The Gracchi Brothers

• The problem of the land and the army
  • Centuries of warfare had forced the Roman state to keep large levies of manpower engaged in military endeavor
  • The traditional method of manning the legions with landed peasants was proving to be an unsustainable practice
    • Peasants would return home after years away from their land to find it confiscated by the wealthy or in ruins – they would then flee to the cities
    • The growth of the latifundia, utilizing slave labor, led to a sharp decline in the free rural population – ability to fill the legions was in doubt
  • Tiberius Gracchus, the older of two patrician brothers, became tribune in 133
    • Wanted to reclaim land from the wealthy and redistribute it to dispossessed farmers
    • After much controversy, Tiberius was able to get his land bill passed and funded
    • His victory and a desire to see his legislation through compelled Tiberius to run for re-election as tribune in 132
      • This unprecedented action convinced Tiberius’ enemies of his desire to seize power (almost certainly untrue)
      • Tiberius was assassinated on the steps of the Capitol – the first time in 400 years that blood had been shed in Rome over civil issues
    • Tiberius’ brother Gaius Gracchus became tribune in 123 B.C.
      • A great orator and more skilled politician than his brother, he would be re-elected to the tribunate in 122
      • Would continue his brother’s policies and even took them further
        • In league with middle class commercial interests, he began an active policy of creating veteran colonies in Italy and abroad
      • Initiated the practice of the state buying grain and distributing it cheaply to the masses of the city
        • Although well-intended, this practice would be later perverted into a means by which crafty politicians could bribe the population
      • Gaius allied himself with the Equites (middle class) to unsuccessfully push for widening citizenship to more of the Latin peoples of Italy
      • Fearful of the popular support enjoyed by Gaius, the Senate contrived to keep him from a third tribunate in 121
        • Stripped of the protections of office, the enemies of Gaius isolated him and had him murdered on the Aventine Hill
      • The legacy of the Gracchi brothers
        • True martyrs to the cause of the Republic
          • Populists who truly believed in doing what was right for the sake of all Romans, they were sacrificed to that belief
          • Demonstrated that members of the patrician classes could be disinterested reformers
        • Constructive reforms were enacted
          • The unemployment problem was temporarily alleviated and the situation in rural Italy improved in favor of small farmers
        • Bad signs for the future
          • The power of the demagogue – the brothers’ frequent mobilization of popular support through incendiary oratory set a dangerous precedent for the future – the tempo and temper of political life was forever heightened
          • The Italians were left bitter – the Equites were more politically conscious – the people had learned something of its power
          • The potentially destructive power of the tribunate was grossly revealed – the weakness of the Senate was obvious

The Militarization of Politics – Gaius Marius

• Gaius Marius was of a good family from Arpinum (60 miles south of Rome)
  • First elected to the tribunate in 119, he earned a reputation for being independent, energetic, and courageous
• In 112, war broke out in the province of Africa
  • The rogue Jugurtha was attempting to seize power in the Roman client kingdom of Numantia – the war went badly at first
    • Marius was assigned to the army in Africa
  • Marius returned to Rome, got himself elected consul for 107 and appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in Africa
    • He was elected through bribery – then the people appointed him commander against the Senate’s wishes
  • Through harsh discipline and shrewd tactics, Marius finally reduced Jugurtha’s army and had him captured
  • A popular general had divided the Senate and the Equites against each other and won wide acclaim – a dangerous precedent
• By 105 it became clear that hordes of Gallic barbarians were threatening to roll down the Italian peninsula and sack Rome again
  • Four generals proved incapable of stopping the invasion – only one man would do for the terrified people of Rome
  • Desperate, the people would see to the election of Marius to another consulship
• Marius would go on to capture five consecutive consulships (104-99)
  • He wasn’t even present when elected in 104 (and the law forbade re-election AND election without attendance
  • Marius quickly returned and undertook an almost complete reorganization of the Roman army
    • Abolished the requirement that a soldier must own a minimum amount of land
    • Accepted volunteers instead of simply drafting men
    • Introduced the idea of granting land to demobilized troops – but the land came directly from him
  • Marius’ actions shored up the Roman army to the point where he was able to smash the barbarian hordes
    • Also made the mostly poor troops wholly dependent on their commander – for war booty, pay, and land when they retired
  • Marius’ dominated Roman politics through his control of a personal army
    • This tendency of a standing army to interfere in politics would become a defining feature of the rest of Roman history
    • The army was converted into an instrument for ambitious commanders to wield in their political maneuverings – army became everything in Roman politics

The First Dictatorship – Lucius Cornelius Sulla

• Sulla was from an old patrician family that had fallen on hard times
  • Used his charm and good looks to get himself large inheritances from his step-mother and a mistress
  • Cynical, superstitious, energetic, self-indulgent, tactful, ruthless
• For distinguished service in ending the Italian War, Sulla was elected to the consulship in 88 and assigned to Asia to put down unrest there
  • But a crafty tribune tried to take control of the state himself and transfer command of Asia to Marius (Sulla’s bitter enemy)
  • Faced with the loss of prestige and the lucrative Asian command, Sulla appealed to his troops and marched on Rome
    • First time in Roman history that an army entered the city limits
    • Sulla had Marius and Sulpicius declared outlaws, secured his own position and departed for Asia
  • While Sulla was away in Asia, his enemies tried to thwart his position
    • But his success in the Asian war forced his enemies into a defensive posture
    • He returned in 83 – civil war was the result – Sulla won, defeated the forces of Marius and Cinna (Marius killed himself), and occupied Rome
  • Sulla established himself as dictator of Rome in 81 B.C.
    • The Senate granted Sulla the power to make laws and amend the constitution – office and powers were granted for as long as he wanted
    • Sulla ordered mass proscriptions – indiscriminate murder of huge numbers of his political opponents
      • Seized his victims’ land and wealth for distribution to his friends and soldiers
    • Sulla’s reforms
      • Concerned mainly to increase the power of the Senate at the expense of the people
        • Took away any power which the tribal assembly possessed in favor of the military assembly
        • Reduced the power of the tribunes, who until then had been able to use the people’s assemblies to by-pass the senate
          • Tribunes could not propose legislation – deprived of all judicial power – right to veto was limited – made ineligible for any other offices
        • Raised the membership of the Senate and provided for its regular replenishment
        • Scaled back the ability of army commanders to build personal forces
          • Consuls and pro-consuls could only command in the field for a limited period and then had to come back to Rome alone
        • Sulla then retired in 79 to his private estate
          • Failed miserably to bring strength back to the Roman constitution
            • Romans remained divided over their selfish interests and were willing and eager to manipulate the state for their personal gain
          • Historians have puzzled over Sulla’s retirement
            • He died peacefully in 78 – his constitution would be swept away within ten years

Reasons for the Decline of the Republic

• Long periods of military service and traditional levy system
  • Peasants serving in the army had their unworked land seized or bought by rich and enterprising nobles and converted into latifundia
• The conquests of Rome returned great wealth to the capital
  • But this war booty was extremely unevenly distributed among the wealthy
  • Much of this wealth was in the form of slaves, decreasing demand for free laborers and putting small farmers out of business
• The continuing militarization of politics
  • Manpower shortages forced the Roman army to resort to taking poor men into their ranks – armies became personal command centers
• The informal nature of the Roman constitution
  • It could be changed at will, and the people often demanded that exactly (i.e. elected Marius to consecutive consulships)
  • It was the classic slippery slope – once one leader did it, it was only a matter of time before another did

The Rise of Pompey

• First gained a military reputation as a lieutenant of Sulla’s – later conquered the barbarian guerrillas of Spain – crushed the slave rebellion led by Spartacus
  • These exploits earned him the title “Magnus”, or “Great”
• As the slave war ended, the joint armies of Crassus and Pompey descended on Rome
  • Both men wanted the consulship in 70, but Pompey was six years too young and had little experience of government
  • In the end, the Senate could not resist the army of Pompey
• The joint consulship saw the official end of Sulla’s constitution
  • Restored the power of the tribunes and the tribal assembly
• After Pompey’s departure from the consulate, he went on win great victories
  • Received extraordinary powers to destroy the pirates of the Mediterranean – did so within less than one year and made the sea safe for trade
  • Was given command of the armies of the east
    • From 66-62, Pompey reduced Armenia, ended the Greek Seleucid monarchy, defeated the Parthians, entered Damascus and Jerusalem, and created an eastern settlement that would last for decades
  • Upon Pompey’s triumphant return from the east in 62, he was disgusted at the political infighting then tearing Rome apart
    • The Senate at first refused to acknowledge Pompey’s highly advantageous settlement of the east

The First Triumvirate

• With Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus all in Rome in 60, they each set about getting approval for their respective programs
  • Pompey wanted the Senate to approve his eastern settlement and provide land for his veterans – Caesar wanted a triumph and to stand for the consulate – Crassus wanted the Senate
• Gaius Julius Caesar was a descendent of an influential patrician family
  • Opposed by a small, but powerful, faction in the Senate, Caesar looked around for help in his ambitions
  • Approached the frustrated Pompey about forming a triumvirate with he and Crassus – Pompey was amenable and Crassus’ money made it happen
    • This event would be a turning point in the history of the Roman Republic
    • Three men, backed by armed force, the urban populace, and by the Equites, imposed their will on and destroyed the power of the Senate
  • Immediate results of the First Triumvirate
    • Pompey was given land grants for his soldiers and his eastern settlement was approved – also appointed governor of Spain (though he still lived in Rome) and married Caesar’s daughter Julia
    • Caesar was given command of Cisalpine Gaul (Po valley), Transalpine Gaul (Provence), and the coast of Illyria
  • Decline of the First Triumvirate
    • Caesar’s terrific success (however bloodily obtained) in the Gallic Wars (58-50 BC) led to jealously and suspicion in the Senate and Pompey
      • Eventually brought into Rome the entire area of modern France and Belgium
    • Crassus, eager for military success of his own, was appointed to a command of Syria
      • In 53 BC, Crassus was killed in battle against the Parthians
    • Pompey stayed in Rome and acted as the agent of the triumvirs
      • The death of Julia and Pompey’s marriage to another woman in 54 led to the destruction of the main bond b/w Pompey and Caesar
      • The death of Crassus further weakened the bond

Civil War

• In 52, Rome was plunged into civil chaos when consular elections weren’t held
  • The Senate gave Pompey extraordinary powers to restore order in the city
  • Pompey neglected to act towards the protection of Caesar’s interests – their relationship grew strained
    • Caesar wanted to run for consul in absentia, but Pompey prevented it and opened up Caesar to the possibility of prosecution
  • The enemies of Caesar wanted to put him on trial for crimes against the state when his term as governor of Gaul ended in 49
    • As tensions rose, Pompey was given full command of the legions of Italy and Caesar was faced with two choices
      • Return legally and leave himself open to his enemies, or march with his legions into Italy illegally to protect his interests (and start a civil war)
    • Caesar tried everything in his power to negotiate a settlement
      • Mark Antony (tribune for 49) was sent to Rome to try and iron out a mutually beneficial agreement
      • A small minority of the Senate and Pompey refused to compromise on the issue and Caesar’s hand was forced
    • Crossing the Rubicon
      • In January of 49 B.C., Julius Caesar and his legion crossed the Rubicon River (the boundary b/w Cisalpine Gaul and Italy) and invaded his own country
    • Very quickly, Caesar’s generosity with the people of Rome and his veterans paid off handsomely
      • His own men were fervently behind him – many more joined them on the march to Rome
      • Pompey and most of the Senate fled to Greece to remobilize
    • In 48, Caesar defeated a numerically superior force led by Pompey at Pharsalus in Greece
      • Pompey fled to Egypt and was assassinated as he went ashore
      • Caesar also went to Egypt, firmly established Roman hegemony there, had an affair with Cleopatra, and returned to Rome in 46

Caesar’s Dictatorship

• Named dictator and consul in 49, he would be named dictator-for-life in 44 – refused the crown of Rome, but many were nervous of his intentions
• Unlike Sulla, Caesar generously granted pardons to his enemies in return for loyalty and service
  • Impressed by his clemency, many at first flocked to his banner
• Caesar’s reforms
  • Established the 365-day calendar with a leap year every fourth based on an old Egyptian system
  • Reduced the corn dole – planned and funded several major building projects (including a new Forum) – provided for a major new road-building initiative – introduced a new gold coinage
  • A new law of the provinces regulated the rapacity of tax collectors – a new municipal law reorganized Italy
  • Liberal grants of citizenship to provincials began the process of expanding the definition of what it meant to be Roman – new colonies were planned for over 100k veterans and poor urban Romans
  • Expanded the Senate to 900 – the Senate remained important as an administrative and judicial body, but it ceased to function dynamically
• The death of Julius Caesar
  • Assassinated on March 15, 44 B.C., his death is one of the most famous in all of Western history, literature, and culture
  • The two leading conspirators were Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius
    • His autocratic rule was hated by the upper class – they wanted the traditional republic, because under it they held a disproportionate amount of power

The Death of the Roman Republic

• Caesar’s death was met by political paralysis at first
  • The conspirators imagined that they were going to restore the senatorial republic amid general acclamation.
  • The enemy they had most to fear was Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony, ca. 83-30 BC), consul designate and a favorite lieutenant of the murdered dictator
    • A man of brilliant, though erratic ability, boundless ambition and a whole-hearted devotion to his dead chief.
  • Neither side took much notice of a youngster of eighteen years away in Macedon, whom the childless Caesar had adopted, his great-nephew Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus.
• The conflict did not begin at once, at first there was hollow reconciliation.
  • Antony secured Caesar’s papers and secured from the senate the ratification of Caesar’s acts and a public funeral – at which Antony’s speech and the reading of Caesar’s will produced a violent popular outcry of revulsion against the self-styled ‘liberators’.
  • Under the threat of being lynched by the angry mob, the conspirators hastily left Rome, leaving Antony master of the situation.
• Fearful of the wrath and ambition of Antony, the Senate recruited Octavianus in the mistaken notion that he could be manipulated and controlled
  • Politically astute beyond his years, Octavian was weary of civil war and sought to bring peace to Rome, no matter the political cost
  • Antony had seized control of Caesar’s Gallic legions – Octavian had a number of poorly trained Italian and Spanish legions
• In 43 BC, Octavian and Antony formed an alliance to outmaneuver the Senate and end the civil wars – the Second Triumvirate was a military dictatorship
  • The legions of Antony and Octavian then entered Rome and drove the republican party (Cassius and Brutus) to the east
    • Enemies of the Triumvirate were ruthlessly purged (i.e. Cicero)
    • Taking control of Macedonia and Syria, Cassius and Brutus built an army
  • The Battle of Philippi in northern Greece ended in disaster for the republicans – troops of the 2^nd Triumvirate were given lands in Italy

The Foundation of an Empire

• By 40, Octavian and Antony had divided the empire into two jurisdictions
  • Octavian took control of the west – Antony took Egypt, Syria, and Greece
  • Antony involved himself in a prolonged affair with the wily Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt – Octavian consolidated his control over the west
• Octavian’s success in clearing Italy of war and safeguarding the seas earned him the title Imperator Caesar in 38
  • Octavian’s political support among the people and the aristocracy grew steadily – he was shrewdly able to identify himself as the savior of peace in Rome
• By 34 it was clear that an irrevocable break was coming
  • After a successful Armenian campaign, Antony declared his intention to leave the eastern provinces of Rome to his and Cleopatra’s children
    • Also tried to legitimize Caesar and Cleopatra’s son, thus calling into the question of Octavian’s legitimacy
  • The Second Triumvirate ended legally at the beginning of 32 and both sides began preparing for conflict
    • Antony was depicted in the west as having succumbed to the supernatural guile of the demi-god Cleopatra
    • Antony divorced Octavian’s sister and worked to undermine western influence in his domains
    • Faced with crisis, Octavian seized Antony’s will from the Vestal Virgins and read it aloud to the Senate
  • At the naval Battle of Actium (the western coast of Greece), the forces of Antony and Cleopatra were routed – Antony withdrew to Egypt
    • Antony would commit suicide as Octavian’s forces advanced on Alexandria – Cleopatra would also commit suicide when she learned that Octavian wanted to take her back to Rome as a public prisoner
  • By 30 BC, Octavian was the sole master of the Roman world
    • The Republic was dissolved slowly – the imperator was proclaimed pater patriae, father of his country, princeps, first citizen, Caesar Augustus
      • Almost, but not as yet, divine
      • Henceforth he was known no longer as Octavian, but as Augustus

The Rule of Augustus

• Augustus would restore the appearance, but not the reality, of the Republic
  • Avoided offensive displays of authority (i.e. he never announced that he was converting the republic to the empire and never dressed like a tyrant)
  • Only allowed the Senate to grant powers and bestow honors gradually (i.e. imperator in 38, tribunary sacrosanctity in 36, princeps in 30 (senior ex-consul), Augustus in 28 (which means blessed or fortunate), Pontifex Maximus)
  • Allowed the Senate to continue to play a role in politics (albeit only as an administrative and judicial body)
• The power of command through the imperium was granted over the whole of the Roman world in 23 – renewed every 5-10 years
  • Assumed personal control of the provinces – governors, when appointed, reported directly to the emperor
  • Given powers of consuls, tribunes, and censors – enabled him to portray himself as the defender of the peoples’ interests
    • Made his rule essentially absolute
  • Military reforms ensured the internal and external security of the state
    • Provided cash payments from the public treasury to soldiers, securing the loyalty of the troops to the state and not to their generals
    • Extended and solidified the northern boundaries of the empire (i.e. the Rhine and the Danube)
    • Created the Praetorian Guard
      • To be stationed at Rome – 9000 men recruited only from the ranks of Italian legionaries – double pay, great privileges
      • Served as Rome’s police force and the personal bodyguard of the Roman emperor
    • Other reform efforts
      • Believing that moral decay was at the heart of Rome’s problems, he promulgated a series of laws against vice and indecency that did not go over very well and were almost impossible to enforce
      • Tried to encourage family life and legitimacy by creating laws aimed at increasing the birth rate of Romans
    • Made the emperor the high priest of Roman religious life
      • Rebuilt Roman temples from brick into marble – encouraged a religious revival by pouring resources into worship
      • Was deified at his death in 14 AD
    • The legacy of Augustus Caesar
      • The Roman Empire expanded vigorously – great wealth and prosperity were brought to large segments of the empire
      • The age of civil wars was over – peace brought legitimacy to Augustus’ form of government; it would even survive several TERRIBLE rulers

The Empire at Its Height

• Three unifying elements made the early empire operate efficiently
  • A strong and active emperor meant that decisions could be made quickly and with maximum accountability
  • Strong civil servants and city councils of the various towns saw to the efficient administration of such a large domain
  • A strong army enforced the peace and encouraged trade
• For three centuries after the death of Augustus would Rome preside over the Pax Romana

The Successors of Augustus (the Julio-Claudians)

• Tiberius (14-37 AD), son of Augustus’ wife Livia, succeeded Augustus at Livia’s urging
  • In recognizing Tiberius, the Senate confirmed the principal of dynastic succession – it was clear to all that Rome was no longer a republic
  • Tiberius had served capably as a consul and military commander under Augustus – he was recognized as a man of ability
• The successor of Tiberius was his grand-nephew Gaius (aka Caligula) (37-41)
  • The opening months of his reign opened well, but then he got sick and emerged as a monster of lust and diabolical cruelty
  • Was assassinated in 41 by the prefects of his Praetorian Guard – a dangerous first in the history of the Roman Empire
• Caligula’s uncle, Claudius (41-54), was proclaimed emperor
  • A glutton, a drunkard, and a gambler, he also was very conscious of history and had a sincere desire to rule well
  • Skillful as an administrator, an identifier of military and civil talent, and as a thoughtful reformer of common sense
    • Was the first emperor since Augustus to be deified after his death
  • Nero ascended when his mother, Agrippina, conspired to murder Claudius (54-68)
    • Vicious and vain, cruel and lustful, Nero was one of the worst of all the Roman emperors
  • The legacy of the Julio-Claudians
    • The centralization of power accelerated
      • The Senate and assemblies became weaker while the Praetorian Guard increased in strength
    • The empire continued to expand
      • Britain was annexed as a province in 45 AD

Five Good Emperors (96-180 A.D.)

• Nerva (96-98 A.D.)
  • Adopted Trajan and designated him as successor
  • Began system whereby an emperor would choose a qualified successor and adopt him as his son
• Trajan (98-117 A.D.)
  • Chosen because of his high military reputation – ruled with fairness and wisdom, later viewed as a model emperor
  • First non-Italian emperor – he was from Spain
  • Empire reached its farthest extent to the east
    • Trajan led troops down the Tigris-Euphrates River valley to the head of the Persian Gulf
  • Completed construction of Trajan’s Forum and Column (still standing)
• Hadrian (117-138 A.D.)
  • Withdrew from ungovernable eastern areas conquered by Trajan
  • Weakened the assemblies and rarely consulted the Senate
    • Members of his council collected past praetorian edicts in an attempt to standardize procedures of civil law
      • Most important codification of Roman law until Justinian’s Code in the 6th century
    • Conditions of soldiers, slaves and women improved – women obtained the same rights as men in courts
    • He undertook a vast building program
      • Built Hadrian’s Pantheon, which still survives today
        • Largest domed building in the world until the 20th century
      • Hadrian’s Wall stretched 73 miles from the Irish Sea to the North Sea, was 8-10 feet wide and 15 feet tall
    • Antonius Pius (138-161 A.D.)
      • His long reign is described as a period of peaceful prosperity and relative quiet before the storms of the reign of Marcus Aurelius
      • Ruled conservatively and focused on efficient administration
    • Marcus Aurelius (161-180 A.D.)
      • A philosopher-king whose reign was long and troubled
      • Parthian Wars (161-166)
        • Victory was decisive and the Parthians were reduced
        • Smallpox came home with the troops and severely hindered efforts at political consolidation at home
      • German wars
        • In 169 the Marcomanni and Quadi crossed the Danube and invaded Italy – the threat was barely extinguished
      • Marcus Aurelius gave up the practice of adoption by choosing his worthless son Commodus (180-192), whose extravagance and cruelty were reminiscent of Nero

The Economy of the Early Empire

• Economic life in Italy and the provinces reached a level of prosperity that Europe would not see again for 1000 years
  • The population of Rome reached upwards of one million inhabitants
  • Civil engineers and administrators were able to deal with challenges of public hygiene
• The harbor of Ostia served Rome and made it the busiest port in the world
  • Though the economy of the east was stronger and more diverse
• The culture of the Roman Empire was heavily urban
  • Other than Rome, cities were small and population density was low in the west
  • Eastern provinces had bigger cities and heavier populations
    • Alexandria = 400k inhabitants, Ephesus = 200k
  • Agriculture remained the basic support of the economy (approx. 75% of imperial GDP)
    • Latifundia (large slave-run estates) had replaced small farms during the late Republic
      • Supplied cities with construction materials and with fuel for baths
    • Extensive deforestation from fuel demand and soil erosion from overgrazing of livestock caused serious ecological damage
    • Provinces often surpassed Italy in agricultural importance
      • Spanish wine and Gallic pottery supplanted the Italians

Social Conditions

• The wealthy had running water tapped into their homes and they owned extensive numbers of slaves
  • Townhouses in winter were enclosed buildings with inner courtyards (to prevent mingling with the unwashed masses
    • Sometimes decorated with elaborate wall paintings with landscapes
  • Country villas at resort communities (like Pompeii) provided playgrounds for the rich in summer
• Workers of Rome usually lived in flimsy and flammable tenement apartments
  • No running water and few kitchen or bathroom facilities
• Public baths were everywhere and were cheap to patronize
  • Romans worked in the morning and took a brief nap in the early afternoon before heading off to the bath house in the late afternoon
  • Much business and pleasure was conducted there
• Romans worked 6-7 hours per day and had 160 holidays a year!!!
  • Major amusements included chariot races at the Circus Maximus (which seated approx. 270,000 spectators) and gladiatorial combats in the Coliseum (completed in 80 A.D. and seating 50-87k spectators)
    • Concrete was invented to build the Coliseum
  • Romans ate in a reclining position without knife or fork
  • Rome supported half its population at public expense
    • Free water and cheap, subsidized bread

Roman Law

• Romans distinguished their own citizens from members of the empire who did not possess citizenship
  • Citizens were subject to the civil law of Rome (jus civile)
  • The remainder kept their own customs, which formed the law of nations in general (jus gentium)
    • Eventually the jus gentium replaced the jus civile
  • The law was modified throughout the period of the early empire
    • Jurists were private citizens who understood the law, advised judges – an ancient form of lawyer, without formal training
    • Praetors often issued edicts which explained how they would interpret the law during their year in office
  • Rome designed and preserved a system of laws governing the behavior of citizens that would serve as the model for the law of western Europe (except in England)

Engineering and Architecture

• A vast network of roads remain as one of the most enduring monuments to Roman engineering
  • Heavy blocks set in layers of crushed stones
  • Originally designed as highways for the rapid movement of military units, they later became famous trade routes
• Aqueducts and extensive sewer systems made large cities possible
  • Romans placed more emphasis on personal cleanliness than any other civilization until modern times
  • Immense public baths included the Baths of Caracalla (built in the 3rd century)
• In building architecture, Romans adapted Greek techniques to Roman tastes
  • Temples supported by columns, esp. Corinthian
• All of this was made possible by the invention of the ARCH
  • Public buildings, aqueducts and triumphal arches
  • Concrete (invented in the 1st century for the Coliseum) was the principal building material

Slavery

• No other society used slaves as extensively as the Romans
  • Of the 7.5 million inhabitants of Italy in 14 A.D., 3 million were slaves
  • Slaves were not restricted to a single ethnic group
    • Large numbers employed on latifundias
  • Slaves received better treatment in cities, where they were employed in virtually every occupation
    • Slaves from the east, esp. Greeks tutored children of the free classes
    • Slaves could accumulate property and could buy their freedom
  • Problems of slavery
    • The creation of incentives was difficult – coercion was the norm
      • The association of slavery with physical labor removed the dignity of hard work
      • Little interest in technological innovation to alleviate the drudgery of physical labor
    • The difficulty of recruiting new workers
      • Demoralized slaves were poor producers of children
      • Wars of conquest provided slaves – when the wars ended, declining numbers of slaves meant reduced output

Developing Problems of the Empire

• In Italy and many provinces, rural depopulation left many cultivated fields abandoned
  • The lure of life in the cities was powerful
  • Negative attitudes associated with manual labor
  • Low birth rates among the poor rural classes
• Some emperors tried to attract free Roman farmers back to the countryside
  • Free cultivators were allowed to rent land from owners at a fixed price – he could then sell the land or pass it on to his heirs
• In the later empire, financial problems forced the government to institute burdensome taxes on the rural population
  • Produce was also ruthlessly requisitioned and serfdom was introduced
  • This led to large numbers of peasant revolts in the later empire