Fingerprinting & Forensic Science, Research Paper Example

Introduction

A full service Crime Laboratory or Forensic Laboratory contains the following type of typical services; these being divided into two components i.e. Field Analysis and Laboratory Analysis. Field Analysis relates to the work of investigators that examine the crime scenes and collect forensic evidence. This usually contains a team of three people (i) Forensic Evidence Technician (ii) A crime scene investigator and (ii) A crime officer that examines the scene of the crime.  Laboratory Analysts are scientific personnel that examine the exhibits brought in from the field in order to conduct scientific tests such as blood splatter analysis, DNA tests or bullet striations etc.

Small states like that of Maine, Vermont and New Hampshire are prime examples of where only one crime forensics laboratory exists.  One of the most important tests conducted in the Forensic Laboratory is that of DNA testing.  The reason this is so important is that because not only does it help in tracking the guilty party it can also set innocent parties free.  Eye Witness testimonies in the courts have been refuted by DNA analysis and released innocent people.  DNA retrieved from a crime scene is one of the most compelling forms of evidence in proving the person was at the scene of the crime.  Hair, skin and blood deposits all create a unique fingerprint in forms of identifying individuals.

Within the confines of Forensic Science, within criminal investigation scenes, the use of fingerprints provides a useful means of tracing a suspect to a crime scene and in some cases a potential murder weapon.  Although largely replaced by DNA analysis it still remains an important part of secondary analysis as each fingerprint is unique to an individual.  The science of dactylography is particularly powerful when comparisons can be made to a database containing prints of thousands of known criminals. (Morgan, E. 2005)

In the early days the cross matching of finger prints was a long and time consuming process as this had to be accomplished manually looking at ridges and scales in the prints. The use of computers has now made this a much more expedient and robust process. (Oracle, 2011). Comparative analysis by computer is by scanning the print and then cross-matching by graphical images in a database. (Neate, E. 2011)

An Australian Researcher  has found a way of using Amino Acids to detect old dry and used fingerprints that cannot be detected by traditional powder methods.  This is a breakthrough in Forensic Science. The new technique enhances old and degraded fingerprints and provides a much clearer image. (Grubb, B. 2011). The diagram below shows biometric matching and how two prints are plotted to achieve a match.  Location and points are plotted from one print to the other for multiple correlations or matches.  (Salil P. 2007)

Historical Developments of Forensics

1950    It was August Valmar, Police Chief in California, established a school of criminology. Max Freisulzer a Swiss forensics expert developed ‘tape lifts method of collecting evidence

1951    F.H. Allen developed the ‘Kidd Blood Grouping’ system

1954    R.F. Bortenstein invented the breathalyser

1958    Weisner developed a test to prove O+ blood types

1975    Federal rules of evidence for US Supreme Court

1977    FBI introduced automated fingerprint system

1984    Sir Alex Jeffrey 1^st DNA profiling test

1986    DNA testing proved the murder in Colin Pitchfork case in UK

1987    DNA profiling introduced to UK for the first time

1992    FBI developed mnemonic system ‘ drugfire’ comparing marks on bullets cases and shells

1996    FBI introduced computer database for fingerprint searches

1999    Automated Fingerprint database system   (Rudin, 2000)

Early Forensic Science

Glass and Soil Evidence

In the context of Glass and Soil Evidence the term ‘physical property’ means having the physical property of the substance without changing its composition through chemical reaction.  ‘Chemical property’ means that the physical property of the substance has had its chemical composition modified for analysis and testing purposes. It is essentially the behaviour of that substance and how it reacts with another chemical property.

Soil Samples

Soil samples were examined at crime scenes as early as the 19th Century. It included the collection of trace samples of a number of substances which includes items such as hair, blood, dirt, fibres, glass and other small particles retrieved from the crime scene. Forensic scientists examine these particles in an attempt to trace the location of where a victim has been; the soil samples may be mineral, organic or synthetic by nature.  A famous investigation by the FBI Forensic team was that of the Enrique Camarino case where the located the site of the victims by hair, fibre and soil samples.  Despite tampering and corruption within the Mexican police authorities the FBI were able to secure a successful conviction.

Glass Samples

Glass is primarily composed of silicon dioxide and can be readily identified by its varying mineral decomposition i.e. soda lime, lead, borosilicate and other special properties. The glass can be collected from a crime site and the tiny fragments used for matching with other particles that might be found on the suspects clothing. This occurrence needs to happen fairly rapidly after the crime taking place as statistics indicate that 90% of particles are shed from clothing within a 24 hour period.  (Cengage, G. et al 2006)

Glass particles are difficult to analyse and this evidence is not as reliable as that of DNA testing. It is useful in the context of an additional piece of evidence when putting together a complete diagnostic analysis of the crime scene to potential suspects.

Hair Samples

Hair samples are one of the most important forensic pieces of evidence that are located at a crime scene.  Trace evidence of hair lends itself to DNA testing one of the most reliable ways of identifying hair samples in comparative analysis. The hair is structured into three main parts:  the root, the shaft and the tip.  The length and shape of the hair may be used to determine which part of the body it was derived e.g. eyebrows, scalp, beard etc.  The hair lends itself to microscopic analysis where it may be determined if the hair has been subject to any chemical treatment like dyes.  This may also result in the dye being identified. Scale patterns in the cuticle of the hair may be used to identify species e.g. animal or human origin. The comparison of the scale patterns and the Medullary Index. Nail polish is often used in the determination of obtaining scale samples for analysis. The most compelling evidence however is from DNA testing where both sex and genetic composition may be determined.

When looking at the shape of the hair, particularly in determination of whether animal or human, most human hair has no medulla and people of Mongol extraction have a continuous medulla. (Flynn, 2009). Hair is also important as evidence because of its toxicology. The hair often remains after other sources of evidence have decayed, decomposed or do not lend themselves to forensic analysis.  During the capture of Napoleon Bonaparte he claimed that he was being poisoned by his English captors.  His valet kept a lock of his hair and this later was subject to neutron activation analysis and it was discovered that the hair contained significant traces of arsenic indicating that he had indeed died of poisoning over a long period of time.

Hair lends itself to a great deal of different forensic tests with DNA testing being the most potent of these tests. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that such evidence will stand-alone and would need to be supported with other forensic analysis results.  An example being murders resulting from domestic disputes where on its own it has little relevance.

Success and Failure

A criminal defence attorney has an extremely tough time in securing a conviction where forensic evidence is shoddy and does not stand up to scrutiny in court.  The Houston City Police Department are described as having a poor track record in this area. In 2002 it went so far as the Forensic Lab in the city was even shut down.  This being primarily due to the mishandling of DNA analysis by Lab Technicians. They also had a history of losing fingerprint evidence or mishandling the evidence. The FBI and State Law enforcement agency rely heavily upon forensic evidence, this despite the fact that no protocols or standards legitimise the practice and use of these. (Floyd, 2009)

One embarrassing incident involved the FBI arresting an Oregon Lawyer for his believed involvement of the terrorist bombing in Madrid. He was arrested by the FBI in May 1994 and detained for 17 days based upon a match of a fingerprint from the crime scene.  The fingerprint being discovered on one of the detonating devices at the crime scene by the Spanish authorities.  It was later discovered that this was an error and the print belonged to an Algerian National. The FBI was forced to admit that it had made a terrible mistake and released Brandon Mayfield the Oregon Lawyer.  It was embarrassing because the FBI claimed absolute confidence that the print was a match. Despite the sophistication of computer imaging equipment and sophisticated matching software, there still remains scope for human error as was the case here.

Extracting Prints from deceased people

This has always represented a significant challenge when rigor has set in and stiffened the fingers. The use of ink or black fingerprint powder has proved difficult in getting a clear and concise print.  Portable scanners have helped to alleviate the problem. Another method has been to sprinkle black fingerprint powder on scotch tape and lift the print off the deceased’s finger.  The print can then easily be transferred to a fingerprint card

Early Successes

One of the earliest successful cases of finger print evidence was in the Stratton Brothers case in London during 1905.  A brutal murder of two elderly shopkeepers for money from the cash box.  The detectives investigating the murder found a smudged finger print on the underside of the cash till.  They took the print to the newly formed fingerprint department at Scotland Yard and this was later matched to that of a known  felon. Although Albert Stratton did not have a record he matched a witness description, based upon the testimonies of two witnesses that placed him at the crime scene.  The fingerprint evidence together with other witness statement secured a successful conviction of the two Stratton brothers for murder. Both were convicted by the Jury and sentenced to hang on 23^rd May 1905 when the sentence was carried out. (This day in history, 2011)

In June 1984 the police arrested the serial killer known as the ‘nightstalker’. Richard Ramsay was arrested on 13 counts of murder and various other assault offences. A key piece of the evidence was a fingerprint matched by a new computer system. He was tried, convicted and subsequently sentenced to death.

Machine Gun Kelly kidnapped a wealthy oilman from Oklahoma and Kelly demanded a number of ransoms for his release.  A large ransom was paid  but the oilman had shrewdly placed fingerprints all over his place of captivity. This formed a major part of the body of evidence and Kelly was sentenced to life imprisonment

In 1911 Leonardo Da Vinci’s Mona Lisa was stole from the Louvre in Paris. The culprit however left a fingerprint on the glass case. It took two years to find the match but subsequently this led to the arrest and conviction of Vicenzo Perugia. The masterpiece was found and returned to the Louvre.

Fingerprinting as Forensic evidence was found to be an important part in the overall presentation of evidence but does not always stand alone because of human frailties and unreliability in the system.  The subsequent incorporation of DNA testing has considerably strengthened the packaging of forensic evidence.  One of the most important tests conducted in the Forensic Laboratory is that of DNA testing.  The reason this is so important is that because not only does it help in tracking the guilty party it can also set innocent parties free.  Eye Witness testimonies in the courts have been refuted by DNA analysis and released innocent people.  DNA retrieved from a crime scene is one of the most compelling forms of evidence in proving the person was at the scene of the crime.  Hair, skin and blood deposits all create a unique fingerprint in forms of identifying individuals.

Certain States are also using privatised laboratories instead of maintaining their own function; the preference however is for having your own crime lab avoiding the possibility of external intervention.

An extension of finger printing evidence has been that of palm prints and these have proven to be even more reliant. They contain much more detail than fingerprints and as such provide a more conclusive mapping.  One of the most famous cases involving the kidnapping of a 12 year old Polly Klass in 1993.  A man with a knife abducted her in Petaluma California. Torn clothing was found weeks later. The detectives managed to take a palm print from Polly’s bunk bed and this was later matched to Richard Allan Davis, who had two previous convictions of kidnapping, and he confessed to the murder and shown where the body was. He was subsequently sentenced to death for kidnap and murder.

Conclusions

Fingerprinting is an important scientific method in the forensic scientist’s toolbox.  The improvement of computer technology has enabled a wide ranging database to be maintained of those with previous convictions.  This assists in both narrowing the search for suspects and equally can eliminate suspects from suspicion.  The Forensic Scientists however have many other analysis techniques at their disposal including blood splatter, fibre analysis, hair samples, DNA testing, chemical testing, glass and soil samples, etc.  It is often a combination of forensic evidence together with the sworn testimonies from witnesses that provides conclusive evidence on a particular crime scene.  Contamination of evidence has proved an issue and police officers need to take great care in the prevention of this before the forensic team have thoroughly inspected the crime scene and removed all types of forensic evidence.

Works Cited

Cengage, L. L. (2006). “Glass.” World of Forensic Science. Retrieved 5 31, 2011, from e-notes: http://www.enotes.com/forensic-science/

Floyd, J. T. (2009, 12 8).More Evidence of Bad Evidence. Retrieved 6 21, 2011, from John T. Floyd Law Firm: http://www.johntfloyd.com/comments/december09/criminal-forensics-houston.htm

Flynn, K. S. (2009, 9 20). Trace Evidence: Hair. Retrieved 5 30, 2011, from Crime and Clues: http://www.crimeandclues.com/index.php/physical-evidence/trace-evidence/63-trace-evidence-hair

Grubb, B. (2011, 6 9). Sydney leaves its mark in fingerprinting breakthrough. Retrieved 6 8, 2011, from Sydney Morning Herald: http://www.smh.com.au/technology/technology-news/sydney-leaves-its-mark-in-fingerprinting-breakthrough-20110608-1fsz3.html?from=smh_sb

Morgan, E. (2005, 6 2). Fingerprinting in Forensic Science. Retrieved 6 9, 2011, from Ezine: http://ezinearticles.com/?Fingerprinting-in-Forensic-Science&id=410615

Neate, E. (2011). Neate Imaging Services. Retrieved 6 8, 2011, from Forensic Training: http://www.neateimaging.com/page46a.html

Rudin, K. I. (2000). Principles and Practice of Forensic Science: The Profession of Forensic Science. New York: CRC Press.

Salil Prabhakar, A. J. (2007, 1 2). Fingerprint Identification. Retrieved 6 8, 2011, from Biometrics: http://biometrics.cse.msu.edu/fingerprint.html

This day in history. (2011). Fingerprint evidence is used to solve a British murder case. Retrieved 6 21, 2011, from This day in history: http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/fingerprint-evidence-is-used-to-solve-a-british-murder-case