Housing Discrimination and Segregation, Research Paper Example

Researchers suggest that racial segregation still occurs at increased levels within the United States, particularly in the metropolitan areas. In addition, it has also been indicated that among the races, the black and white cultures are the groups that remain the most segregated in residential areas. (Dawkins, 2005) There has been considerable debate among researchers on the causes of the persistent segregation between races in the residential communities of the United States. Some researchers suggest that the role of residential preferences is directly related to that of choice from all racial and ethnic groups, which results in segregated communities in the American metropolitan areas. On the other hand, other researchers suggest that the segregation occurs from historical processes and current processes that have been and are currently happening in the banking and loan industries. (Andelman, 2005) Much research has been focused on investigating the causes for residential segregation by race; however, the factors that contribute to the Black versus White residential segregation in America is not well understood. It has been over 50 years since the de jure segregation in public places and over 30 years since the anti-housing discrimination act has been implemented. The current paper investigates the factors that are contributing to the persistence of racial segregation in American communities, as well as reviews literature debating the factors resulting in racial segregation.

Previous research has suggested that different races residing in specific locations remain high as a result of income intervals. Furthermore, factors, such as education levels and family composition when correlated with individual level investigations of location by choice, report similar data. Research in the past has relied on information from the American Housing Survey in order to obtain information regarding an individual’s choice for county of residence. The researchers found that changes in factors, such as changes in income had little effect on the choice for Black people to move to better communities. Therefore, it has been a challenge in finding direct reasons for the continual segregation. One explanation that is suggested is that the African American people are prohibited from moving to certain areas due to housing market discrimination. In a study conducted by Yinger (1995), it was suggested that Blacks are facing barriers from entering white communities, due to increased prices, and landlord and mortgage discrimination. In addition, it was found that Blacks were receiving hostility from White residents if residing in “White” communities. Furthermore, it was found that White and Black races would be willing to pay higher levels for housing if their own racial group was the majority in that community; however, it was found that white individuals had a higher preference for moving to white neighborhoods and paying a higher price compared to Black individuals moving to a higher housing priced community with the majority being black race.

In a study conducted by Dawkins (2005), a theory is described for the explanation of intergenerational persistence of residential segregation. Dawkins explains that the theory suggests that there are three explanations for the persistence and outcome of segregation and these include: intergenerational wealth transmission, intergenerational transmission of racial attitudes and childhood interracial contact. The theory was proposed due to the expected outcome of children if the racial differences in location choice are due to income constraints, as wealth is usually transferred from parents to children, and therefore, a correlation between parents and children can be predicted. Previous research has found that if Black parents are choosing to live in segregated communities due to income reasons, the intergenerational transmission of income has an impact on the location for housing in which Black parents choose. In addition, due to intergenerational transmission of wealth, the children of the Black parents will most likely have the same income problems and therefore look for housing in the same types of neighborhoods.

In regard to racial attitudes, racial discrimination can be a learned process or attitude and can be passed down through generations. Again, if a child has learned behavior from the parent, it can be predicted that there would be a correlation between a parent living in a segregated neighborhood and a child choosing a segregated neighborhood as an adult. (Dawkins, 2005) In addition to racial attitudes being passed down through generations, the final explanation in the theory of intergenerational persistence includes the “contact hypothesis”. The contact hypothesis can be further described as increases in contact with other racial group’s decreases racial discrimination over time. (Dawkins, 2005) A recent study conducted in 2002 (Scafidi), found that interracial contact between adults at the neighborhood level was significantly related to the racial attitudes of adults. In addition, the study found that the attitudes were significantly correlated when racial groups had similar socioeconomic statuses.

Dawkins (2005) conducted aregression analysis through use of data obtained from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), which was a longitudinal study of US residents and their families. In addition, 1970 census tract racial composition variables were used from the Neighborhood Change Database in order to evaluated parental racial composition. The results of the regression analysis suggest that family income negatively affects race segregation in Black households and positively affects race segregation in White households. Overall, the results of the study showed that without parental or household controls, the effect of parental neighborhood segregation on the child’s choice of residence was correlated in both Black and White individuals; however, the results were smaller for Blacks compared to Whites.

In a study conducted by Adelman (2005), an analysis was performed on where someone lives and why using 1990 Census data and data collected from the Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality (MCSUI) retrieved from Boston, Atlanta, Detroit and Los Angeles in the 1990s. The MCSUI asked individuals questions regarding their residential preferences with regard to the racial aspects in their neighborhoods. In addition, the questionnaire also inquired about their assets, which provided use for a wealth analysis. The overall objective of the study was to analyze the hypotheses that residential preferences of blacks and whites will influence their neighborhood preferences for integrated neighborhoods and residential preferences will be less determinative for middle-class blacks in their neighborhood selections compared to middle-class whites. The results of the study supported the hypotheses. The study found that Blacks with an a better socioeconomic status lived in a more integrated neighborhood; however, the findings also indicated that although the residential areas improved and the Blacks moved to a more integrated area, the middle-class blacks still resided in a highly segregated community. For instance, middle-class blacks who resided in an integrated neighborhood still lived in a neighborhood that was about 60% black and 30% white. In addition, the results showed that whites who lived in somewhat integrated neighborhoods lived in neighborhoods that contained about 90% white and 10% black. Adelman (2005)

In a study conducted by ERASE (2012) in regard to racial demographics and housing discrimination, key findings in the study resulted in a different outcome than research found previously. In this study, the percentage of Blacks who were asked what kind of neighborhood they want to live, the majority chose a mix of black and white. In addition, only 1% chose all Black. Furthermore, 58% of the participants indicated that they thought that African Americans miss out on the housing due to real estate agents with personal knowledge of housing discrimination. The research also found that the even with better personal income levels, African Americans lived in higher concentration areas of poverty compared to whites and that African Americans were not happy with the local public schools or government/state services that were offered to them. (ERASE, 2012)

Advocates for fair housing have been in play since the 1960s. A technique known as “paired testing” has been employed in order to determine the level of discrimination by rental and real estate agents. In this scenario, two different individuals, one white and the other of minority decent, pose as looking for a home. Both of the individuals are equality qualified and trained to inquire about the same preferences. Therefore, the only difference to the housing provider is the race or ethnicity. Results from these studies have found that housing providers were telling the minority customer that the rental was no longer available; whereas, the white individual was told that the apartment was ready for move in. Although significant effort has been underway to help decrease discrimination against minority people seeking homes, discrimination still remains at a high level. Evidence has shown that discrimination rates are high for all racial and ethnic groups and range from almost 30% to 17% dependent on the race. The Federal Fair Housing Act has been implemented in order to prohibit any type of discriminatory system. However, it must also be known that the enforcement of the Act depends on complaints that are issued from the actual victims of the discrimination. Basically, the individual who was seeking the home must know or be aware of their fair housing rights and also be aware when the rights have been violated in order to take further action. Evidence has shown that people are not aware of their rights or do not take the appropriate action. (Turner, 2008)

Another study was conducted by Ahmed and Hammarstedt (2008) in which the same type of technique as in the “paired testing” was used; however, in this study the audit technique was applied to on-line advertisements and e-mails. In this study, the Swedish housing advertisement website was analyzed to find racial discrimination between native Swedes and Muslim minority. There was a significant correlation in racial discrimination towards Muslims found. Therefore, it can be noted that the problem is not just present in the United States, but Worldwide. Other studies conducted within the United States have shown discrimination in the housing agencies as well. Data obtained in a study by Roscigno et al., (2009), sampled discrimination in the Ohio from 1988 through 2003. The data illustrated discrimination from landlords, neighbors, lenders and real estate agents. The data was obtained from the Ohio Civil Rights Commission and contained information with the investigation that occurred, witness statements, audit/testing results, transcripts from actors involved in the audit, and other important information.

Racial inequality remains a social problem in the United States and can be recognized through the persistent segregation of racial communities in the United Sates. There have been multiple reasons for suggesting the persistence of segregation, such as the choice from the racial or ethnic group themselves, income level, educational level or from banking and loan industries. The most convincing type of evidence has been correlated to the housing market. Audit analyses conducted in the past years have found direct discriminatory acts in the housing market. In order to decrease discrimination in regard to fair housing, enforcement issues should not only rely on the individual to complain upon suspected discrimination, the housing authority should fund organization to conduct more discrimination testing in the sales market, where it seems to appear more likely to occur. In addition, the local housing agencies should reach out to minority communities in order to address the discrimination issues. Discrimination and the continual segregation of communities will result in continual racial discrimination amongst racial groups, as well as the inability of racial groups to attempt to relocate and integrate into other communities. Discriminatory acts may prevent other races from seeking other opportunities. In addition, it can prevent other races from obtaining different or better work opportunities in other areas.

Overall, there are several factors involved in the racial segregation of communities within the United States. Government policies and community awareness and outreach to housing discrimination are a step in the right direction. Opportunities to live a better community and obtain resources available, such as education and employment, should be available to all ethnic backgrounds and races.

References

Ahmed, AM. and Hammarstedt, M.(2008). Discrimination in the Rental Housing Market: A Field Experiment on the Internet. Journal of Urban Economics, 64(2): 362–72.

Andelman, R.M. (2005). The Roles of Race, Class, and Residential Preferences in the Neighborhood Racial Composition of Middle-Class Blacks and Whites. Social Science Quarterly. 86(1): 209-227.

Dawkins, CJ. (2005). Evidence of the Intergenerational Persistence of Residential Segregation by Race. Urban Studies. 42(3):545-555.

ERASE. (2012). Housing and Neighborhood Preferences of African Americans on Long Island 2012 Survey Research Report. Retrieved from: http://www.eraseracismny.org/storage/documents/FINAL_ERASE_Racism_2012_Housing_Survey_Report_web_version.pdf

Rocigno, VJ., Karafin, D.L., and Tester, G. (2009). The Complexities and Processes of Racial Housing Discrimination.

Turner, M.A. (2008). Limits on Housing and Neighborhood Choice: Discrimination and Segregation in U.S. Housing Markets. Indiana Law Review. 41:797-816.

Yinger, J. (1995) Closed Doors, Opportunities Lost: The Continuing Costs of Housing Discrimination. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.