Human Anatomy and Physiology, Essay Example

Sometimes women will have a hysterectomy later in life, often because of uterine fibroids or endometriosis. One problem that can happen after a hysterectomy (a sequela) is vaginal prolapse. Why does this happen? How the uterus and vagina are normally suspended in the pelvic cavity?

A vaginal prolapse is a hernia. This is caused by the vaginal tissues entering into a debilitated state due to childbirth and pregnancy. The uterus and vagina are normally sustained within the pelvic bones (Arnould- Taylor 75; Saladin 27).

The vagina produces glycogen, which feeds Lactobacillus acidophilus, the same bacterium which converts milk to yogurt. What happens to this ecosystem when a woman goes on antibiotics?

Studies have shown that the normal ingestion of lactobacillus does not prevent the yeast infections in the vagina. Women who have taken vaginal suppositories that have more than one billion live lactobacillus bacteria in conjunction with the treatment have documented that their symptoms improve (Arnould- Taylor 75; Saladin 27).

Describe how the vestibule and vagina are lubricated.

The secretions which lubricate the vagina are derived from the transudation of the vaginal epithelium, cervix and uterus. In addition, the vaginal lubrication n is derived from the Bartholin’s glands which are the primary origins of vaginal lubrication (Arnould- Taylor 76; Saladin 27).

Some African women who have had clitorectomies report that they are still able to have orgasms. Using your knowledge of female anatomy, explain how an orgasm might be possible in some survivors.

The women who are infibulated and have had a positive experience during the infibulation have been documented as having the capacity to feel orgasms. The women who have had adverse experiences regarding infibulation have documented negative experiences with orgasms. In these cases, factors influencing orgasms in infibulated women are psychological (Arnould- Taylor 76; Saladin 27).

What is the epidemiology of breast cancer in American women? What factors make women more susceptible to breast cancer? Where does the cancer usually spread (metastasize) first?

Many have suggested that the radiological mammary screening is the causal attribute o0f breast cancer. In addition, the incidences are higher in industrialized nations. The risk aspects for American women developing breast cancer have been family history, having children at an advanced age, hormone replacement therapy for menopause, alcohol consumption radiation therapy, early age of initial menstruation and obesity. The breast cancer usually spreads to the lymph nodes which are located under the armpits (Arnould- Taylor 77; Saladin 27).

A common problem in female athletes is amenorrhea, which means a loss (usually temporary) of their monthly period. Why does this occur?

Amenorrhea can occur as a result of excessive strenuous exercise in females. The athlete may have also experienced drastic weight loss. In younger females, stress and pregnancy are the primary causes of amenorrhea (Arnould- Taylor 84; Saladin 27).

What is menopause and what are its symptoms?

Menopause is the period in a female’s life when she stops menstruating and no longer has the capacity of being fertile. The menopause phase of a woman’s life is attributed to the loss of the production of estrogen (Norris & Springfield Part IV; Saladin 27).

During oogenesis, the oogonia form two polar bodies, resulting in just one oocyte. But in spermatogenesis, the spermatogonia form four spermatozoans. Why does this difference make sense from an evolutionary standpoint?

In the process of oogenesis, the diploid oogonium experience mitosis up to the point where one of the diploid oogonium is produced into a main oocyte, which initiates the primary meiotic division. The process continues until the oocyte is produced in the follicle. The outcome is a haploid auxiliary oocyte and a polar body that has a smaller characteristic (Norris & Springfield Part IV; Saladin 27).

Describe the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle.

The follicular stage takes place prior to ovulation and ranges from the first to the fourteenth day. The luteal stage takes place subsequent to the maturation of the oocyte during the fifteen to twenty- eighth day. These are the two processes of the ovarian cycle (Norris & Springfield Part IV; Saladin 27).

What is the menstrual cycle and what is its relationship to the ovarian cycle

The menstrual cycle is the process of inherent changes that occur in the ovaries and uterus. These changes make pregnancies feasible. The menstrual cycle is required for preparing the uterus for pregnancy and the development of the oocytes. Women acquire the first menstrual period during the ages of approximately thirteen and a half years of age. The menstrual cycle is administrated by changes in the hormones (Arnould- Taylor 84; Saladin 27).

During the menstrual cycle, what physiological change most directly causes the loss of the endometrial lining?

The endometrium is one of the most changeable tissues in the female anatomy. The endometrium experiences structural modifications that reflect the metabolic changes. The changes in the endometrium are ammoniated by the hormones progesterone and ovarian estradiol. These changes in metabolism and hormones administrated the attrition of the endometrial lining (Arnould- Taylor 83; Saladin 27).

Mary goes to the doctor’s office, and tells her doctor that her most recent period started on February 1, and ended on February 5. Mary is regular, with a 27-day cycle. a) On which day marks Day 1 of Mary’s cycle? b) On which day will Mary ovulate? c) On which day or days should Mary have sex if she wants to get pregnant? d) On which day or days could Mary have unprotected sex and be unlikely to get pregnant?

The day of the greatest fertility for Mary is the fourteenth day of her menstrual cycle. This would be around February 15. On the fifteenth and sixteenth days, Mary would be extremely fertile. Mary could have sex from the first day of her cycle until the thirteenth and from the seventeenth day to the twenty- eighth day and not become pregnant (Arnould- Taylor 84; Saladin 27).

What are the characteristics of each of Masters and Johnsons’ four stages in the female sexual response? In particular, how is the female sexual response different from the male response?

The four sexual response cycles which are delineated by Masters and Johnson’s the excitement phase. In the excitement phase, the female nipples become erect and the heart rate increases. The blood which flows to the genitalia is enhanced. The vaginal lubrication process initiates in the female. In the male the testicles become swollen and the male starts emitting a lubricant semen. During the second phase which is the plateau, the clitoris may become hypersensitive and the clitoris retracts into the clitoral hood (Arnould- Taylor 89; Saladin 27).

Males and females initiate the process of spasm muscular contractions. In the orgasm stage, there are muscle spasms. The male experiences ejaculation. In the female, the vaginal muscles contract rhythmically. In the final phase which is resolution, the genital organs regress to their original stages. The women may experience numerous orgasms. The males need a refractory interval in order to reach orgasm again, the refractory period is the primary difference between males and females (Arnould- Taylor 89; Saladin 27).

How do you know for sure if a female is aroused? How do you know if she is having an orgasm?

The female will experience and increase bodily temperature. The aroma of the woman will change due to the pheromones which are secreted. In addition, the female experiences vaginal lubrication. Furthermore, the female’s clitoris and breasts becomes swollen (Arnould- Taylor 89; Saladin 27).

We know very little about human sexual behavior and even less about females than females. List the various reasons why this probably is.

The restricted knowledge with regards to sexual behavior is attributed to the biological determination of women. Men only require investing a small amount of energy in order to conceive children. In theory, males can become fathers to almost unlimited number of children. The females have the requisite of ensuring the survival of the children that they have. Women are limited in the number of children that can receive care. This infers that the women are the initiators of conversation and the transmission of knowledge based on sexuality (Arnould- Taylor 892; Saladin 27).

What are the roles of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), human chorionic somatotropin (HCS), estrogens, and progesterone in pregnancy?

HCG is in the category of glycoproteins which are developed in the synctiotrophoblastic cells located in the placenta. HCG is the basis for the B- HCG. B- HCG serves to sustain the secretion of progesterone during the pregnancy. HCs is applied in order to sustain elevated levels of the liberated fatty acid saturations in the maternal circulatory system. Estrogen is essential to the administration of the flow of bloo0d to the uterus during pregnancy (Arnould- Taylor 84; Saladin 27).

The cliché is that pregnant women crave things like ice cream and pickles, but some women have been known to crave dirt. This is called “pica.” What are the actual nutritional needs for a pregnant woman? If a pregnant woman craves dirt, does this mean she needs the nutrition in dirt?

Geophagy and the correlated behaviors which include the ingestion of chalk and ice are an eccentric craving which have no scientific foundation n. The eating of dirt could be associated with anemia and malnutrition. The final theory is that the dirt serves as a protection for the stomach and helps pregnant women purify their digestive tract (Arnould- Taylor 102; Saladin 27).

Is labor a positive or negative feedback system? What starts it and what ends it?

In labor, oxytocin is liberated into the blood and the contractions are accelerated. The enhanced contractions have the causal attributed of greater amounts of oxytocin being released into the blood stream until the baby is born. The child’s birth concludes the release of the oxytocin and the positive feedback systems (Arnould- Taylor 84; Saladin 27).

What is colostrum? Which hormone maintains milk production and what pathway is responsible for the letdown reflex?

The colostrum is the initial secretion from the mammary glands subsequent to the birth of a baby. The colostrum is enhanced with antibodies in order to provide protection to the newborn child. Prolactin is the enzyme that has the causal attribute of the alveoli taking nutrients from the sanguine supply and converting the proteins into breast milk. The cells around the nipple and the alveoli are caused to contract by oxytocin. The letdown process is realized in various ways which include:  The baby’s sucking action, milk seeping from the opposite breast, uterine cramping, tingling sensations in the breasts and thirst (Arnould- Taylor 97; Saladin 27).

Why isn’t cow’s milk a good substitute for human breast milk?

Breastfeeding has been found to be superior to ingestion of cow’s milk in a number of ways. Breast milk enables the mother to delegate particular immunities to the baby. In addition, breast feeding has been demonstrated to prevent post – partum depression (Arnould- Taylor 97; Saladin 27).

What is ectopic pregnancy and how is it treated? (You will need to look in Wikipedia).

An ectopic pregnancy is when the fetors becomes implanted in the fallopian tubes, cervix or abdominal cavity. The only treatment is to either apply methotrexate to conclude the tubal pregnancy. The pregnancy can also be terminated by a surgeon. There are instances where a tube must be extracted with the fetors. This process is designated as a salpingectomy (Arnould- Taylor 84; Saladin 27).

What is preeclampsia? Why is it so medically important? How is it treated?

Preeclampsia takes place when the pregnant female develops protein in the urine and high blood pressure subsequent to the 20^th week of pregnancy. The treatment for preeclampsia is to deliver the baby as soon as possible. In the event that the pregnancy is less than 34 weeks, the doctors may administer steroid injections in order to increase the rate of development of the baby’s lungs (Arnould- Taylor 88; Saladin 27).

What is the most effective form of birth control (other than tubal ligation), for women? What form or combined forms) of birth control is probably best for sexually active female college students?

Abstinence is one of the forms of birth control that is effective. In addition, there are the birth control implants, Implanonand Nexplanon. Furthermore, the birth control patch and pills have been demonstrated to be very effective (Arnould- Taylor 79; Saladin 27).

Works Cited

Arnould- Taylor, William. A Textbook of Anatomy and Physiology. Cheltenham, UK: Nelson Thomes Ltd., 1998. Print.

Norris, Maggie & Donna Rae Siegfried. Anatomy and Physiology for Dummies. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2011. Print.

Saladin, Kenneth. Outlines, Highlights and Practice Quizzes: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. First edition. New York, NY: Cram 101 Textbook Reviews, 2013. Print.