Influence of Philosophy, Research Paper Example

The Scientific Revolution: Isaac Newton and John Locke

Isaac Newton marked a great achievement to scientific revolution in the 17^th century. His observations turned the motions of the universe into a measurable mathematical system. A number of academic fields interested including theology, alchemy, mathematics and optics. His greatest work done in 1687 was titled ‘The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy’ or Principia (Manuel, 1968). It dominated the intellectual tradition having been published in Latin and managed to secure Newton, once not regarded as a genius by other contemporaries, as a great thinker in history. In his work, Principia, he tries to explain why planets are held in their orbits using the demonstration of an apple falling to the earth. This would be called gravity and as a result developed the laws of gravity that could be explained by calculus which he invented.

His revolutionary thinking had great impact since it offered mathematical or empirical proof of nature’s order and meaning based on human reasoning and not traditional faith based reasoning. This brought about concepts that led to scientific discovery dominated by reason.

John Locke founded a distinct ideology in liberal thought. His main rival was Thomas Hobbes who he disagreed with almost everything. Locke supported parliament as opposed to monarchy. This is because he believed the legislature had the will of the common man as opposed to a dictatorial centralized authority. According to him, the government could only gain consent from those it governed (Randall, 1962). His works outlined his ideas in liberal ideology. In ‘Two Treatise’ he argues that humans formed societies after moving from their natural state and that any lawful government didn’t have a base in the supernatural like the traditions in governance. In ‘First Treatise’ Locke respects consensus between men and women, and maintains that God granted dominion over creation and not man over woman.

His liberal thinking saw a more pluralistic world where women were integrated into society as equal partners to men. It also deviated from the conservative philosophy claiming authority of kings as patriarchs which was appealed by biblical teaching that gave Adam and his successor’s dominion over creatures of the world and women.

The Enlightenment Period of 18th Century: Montesquieu and Rousseau

Marquis Montesquieu was among the enlightenment thinkers against absolute monarchy. He developed objectivity in his views of European institutions especially in France, himself being a judicial official and advocated for liberty. His works include the 1721 ‘Persian Letters’ which contained reports that described the irrationality of behavior and custom of European society and which attracted a great audience. The other work he did was the 1748 ‘Spirit of Laws’ expressing his political principles. He recognizes objectively how geographical influences have political systems. He advocates for checks and balances in the governing system. With a practical sense, he defends liberty against dictatorial or tyrannical rule.

His enlightenment thinking gave way for revolutionary thinking and in a practical sense the French revolution that ousted the tyrannical rule. Montesquieu was an advocate of civil and political liberty and rejected religious intolerance, disproportionate punishments, slavery and despotism. His rational view of power distribution concluded that government powers ought to be distributed and separated between legislative, executive and judicial arms in order that power is not centralized to one authority or monopolized to one person. Montesquieu rejected absolutism by proposing an independent judiciary in achieving civil liberty by enforcement of a criminal code that would punish only crimes that posed actual threat to others (Cole, 1993). He was an advocate for constitutional monarchy in the French revolution and an inspiration to republic government of American political developments in the 18^th century. The separation of the arms of government empowered each of the branches to check on the others and was adopted in the 1787 American constitutional convention. The fall of communism and the terror phase of the French revolution renewed interest in Montesquieu’s liberal constitutionalism among monarchy government in Europe to help them understand civil and political liberty.

Jacques Rousseau was an advocate of romantic rationalism. He deviated a bit from the objectives of enlightenment by glorifying human intuition and impulse and distrusted science and reasoning. His thinking lay much trust for the heart and emotion than thought and the mind. He had special admiration for noble men who were free of courts, law, officials and priests. His 1762 writings on social contract rebelled against the established institutions. He stirred a manifesto ‘Man is born free but today he is everywhere in chains’ which he indicted the absolute monarchy (Kendall, 1954).

His enlightenment thinking exerted an influence on other thinkers. Being French enlightenment, its powerful wave of influence affected the English thought through young scholars who furthered their education in France. Among the English scholars were Adam Smith, father of modern economics and Jeremy Bentham who founded utilitarian philosophy. Rousseau’s ideas on education as sufficient in restraining man within society were used in the monarchial society in the 16^th century. The unity of the state proposed that existing states should not be chained to other social orders like aristocracy. Rousseau’s opinion of the social contract gives the people freedom to give consent on their government by exercising their democratic right.

The rational principles are emphasized in the citizen’s assembly representing majority rule where individuals legislate general and common interests among them and thus rejects the authoritarian interest of minority rule. He rejected the passive obedience to religious power and government thus popular consent to government should come from popular opinion and objective church interventions. The people collectively share authority and its sovereignty is indivisible and inalienable (Cole, 1993). Rousseau advocated for individual liberty where his manifesto ‘Man is born free but today he is everywhere in chains’ challenges absolute government and developed the human rights. However his ideas are blamed for human rights violation of the French Revolution and the people’s will as totalitarian democracy as interpreted in contemporary political theory.

References

Randall J. (1962). Career in Philosophy. Lectures Review, Vol.1, p. 105

Kendall W. (1954). The Social Contract. Chicago: Henry Regenry Company.

Manuel F. (1968).  Lectures on Isaac Newton. Retrieved on 21^st February 2010 from http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/newton.html/

Cole H. (1993). Social Contract & Discourses. London. Campbell Publishers.p.199-207