Kidney Cancer, Research Paper Example

Histology

Ovarian cancer is caused by changes to the surface mesothelial epithelium and its transition to mullerian epithelium, and these cells differentiate into different forms of cancer cells (Lalwani et.al). Each subtype of cancer cell is characterized by its own type of chromosomal abnormality (Lalwani et.al).

Normal Function of Tissue/Organ/System

Normal ovarian function is represented by the maturation of eggs on a monthly basis that are stored in follicles, the majority of which die prior to maturation; however, eggs that mature are capable of ovulation and fertilization under the appropriate circumstances (The Regents of the University of Michigan).

Predisposing/Risk Factors

Risk factors for ovarian cancer include increased age, primarily for patients over the age of 40 and patients in the menopausal years; obesity; the use of fertility drugs; the use of androgens; the use of hormone therapies such as estrogen; a family history of the disease; the use of talcum powder; and breast cancer incidence (American Cancer Society).

Preventative Measures

Women seeking to prevent the risk of ovarian cancer include the use of active screening tools; tubal ligation; hysterectomy to remove the ovaries; and prophylactic oophorectomy (National Cancer Institute). Factors that also appear to reduce the risk include a history of reproduction and breastfeeding; the use of birth control; gynecologic surgeries; and diet (American Cancer Society). Other considerations include an examination of clinical trials that are used as cancer prevention tools (National Cancer Institute).

Signs and Symptoms

The typical signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer include the following: pain or pressure in the abdomen or pelvic area; bloating in the abdominal area; diarrhea, nausea, gas, or constipation; fatigue; and possible shortness of breath and heavy vaginal bleeding (National Cancer Institute).

Screening and Diagnosis

Patients are evaluated using physical examinations, including pelvic examinations, in order to determine if there are any changes to the ovaries; if changes are suspected, blood testing may be necessary to determine if there are any changes to CA-125, a substance on some normal cells as well as ovarian cancer cells (National Cancer Institute). Other blood testing is also essential, in addition to an ultrasound to observe any evidence of ovarian tumors and biopsy in order to make a definitive diagnosis (National Cancer Institute). The biopsy is conducted using either the laparotomy procedure or the laparoscopy (National Cancer Institute).

Staging/Grading

Ovarian cancer is classified into different stages, including the following: 1) Stage I: cells located in one or both ovaries; 2) Stage II: Cells are also located in other pelvic tissues; 3) Stage III: Cells have spread to lymph nodes or other tissues outside of the pelvic area; and 4) Stage IV: cancer cells are located outside of the pelvis and abdominal areas and may be present in other organs (National Cancer Institute). The cancer is not graded, however, until surgery is complete and other areas such as the abdomen have been examined to determine if cancer cells are evident (National Cancer Institute).

Treatment

For ovarian cancer patients, treatment is typically provided using a gynecologic oncologist or a radiation oncologist, depending on the nature of the disease and the type of referrals that are made (National Cancer Institute). Possible treatments may include surgery, systemic chemotherapy, intraperitoneal chemotherapy, and local therapy, in addition to the possibility of clinical trials for some patients who qualify (National Cancer Institute).

Prognosis

Based upon the stage of the cancer and the treatments that are available, prognoses vary widely. Therefore, it is important to seek guidance from a physician as early as possible in order to achieve the best possible diagnosis and treatment that may lead to an improved prognosis for patients.

Works Cited

American Cancer Society. “What are the risk factors for ovarian cancer?” 26 March 2014:            http://www.cancer.org/cancer/ovariancancer/detailedguide/ovarian-cancer-risk-factors

Lalwani, Neeraj, Srinivasa R. Prasad, Raghunadan Vikram, Alampady K. Shanbhogue, Phyllis C. Huettner, and Najia Fashih. ”Histologic, Molecular, and Cytogenic Features of Ovarian Cancers: Implications for Diagnosis and Treatment.” Radiographics, 31.3(2011): http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.313105066

National Cancer Institute. “Ovarian cancer prevention.” 26 March 2014:            http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/prevention/ovarian/Patient/page3

National Cancer Institute. “What you need to know about ovarian cancer.” 26 March 2014: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/ovary/page5

The Regents of the University of Michigan. “Normal ovarian function.” 26 March 2014:            http://www.cancer.med.umich.edu/cancertreat/treatment/fertility/normal_ovarian_function.shtml