Native American Studies: Anthropology, Essay Example

Indigenous peoples have endured many hardships and damages inflicted on them over the years. They have dealt with attacks by foreign peoples, with forced removal from their own land and the development of reservations, with forced assimilation encouraged both by society and government policy, and with desecration of sacred lands and ancestral remains. In attempts to survive, overcome, and even prosper in the midst of these hardships, Indigenous peoples have pursued several cultural, legal, and economic strategies. Indigenous activism has played an important role in winning many legal and political battles. Through activism, Indigenous populations have been able to restore a sense of self-identity, for themselves as well as in the eyes of other cultures. This paper will present some of the strategies used by Indigenous peoples to gain identity, beginning with the Lakota Ghost Dance, and discuss some of the laws passed to protect their heritage. The paper will close with a discussion on continuing challenges and a look at current economic development programs pursued.

The literal meaning of Wanagi wacipi is “spirit dance”, but most recognize it as the traditional name for the Lakota Ghost Dance (DeMallie). The Lakota Ghost Dance was a new religion adopted by the Sioux during the fall and early winter of 1890. It originated with a man named Jack Wilson, a Paiute prophet who lived in Nevada (DeMallie). The acceptance of a new religion at that time period has been attributed to coinciding hardships during that period, such as military defeat and reduction in food rations. In his article, “The Lakota Ghost Dance: An Ethnohistorical Account”, Raymond DeMallie describes it as something more. To the Lakota’s, the ghost dance provided a point of view consistent with their beliefs that helped them define and accept the changes that had been forced upon them. Misunderstanding of the purpose of the ghost dance stemmed from confusion by the whites on how the Lakota viewed their world, and the relationship between humankind and nature. While used by the Lakota Sioux as a tool for holding onto previously suppressed rituals and practiced as a religious event for visiting their dead relations, it seems the dominant white society interpreted the ghost dance as directly rebellious and sought to repress its enacting for political reasons. Today, the persecution and death inflicted to repress the enactment of the ghost dance is still widely viewed by Native Americans as a symbol of white oppression (DeMallie).

Symbols of oppression, such as the suppression of religious rituals, prevalent in the lifestyles of Native Americans are what helped lead to Indigenous activism. Though there had been other activist events from the Indigenous population, one main event stands out as the beginning of effective Indigenous activism. In 1969, a young group of mostly urban Native Americans seized the abandoned Alcatraz Island and occupied it (PBS and KQED). Their choice of the island for a political takeover goes back to history. According to oral history the island was first used as a place of isolation or ostracism for tribal members (PBS and KQED). The U.S. Army took control of the island, first using it as a fortress in 1855, then as a prison starting in 1907 (PBS and KQED). Indigenous people determined to encourage rebellious actions against the government’s assimilation techniques were imprisoned there. The takeover of Alcatraz made a statement on two points; one, Native Americans were taking back land originally theirs, and two, they would no longer suffer eradication of their identities. The occupation of Alcatraz forced both the federal government and the American public to confront Indian rights issues.  Two major activist groups emerged from the Alcatraz takeover.

The American Indian Movement (AIM) was comprised mostly of young educated urban Native Americans with progressive views. It was originally formed with the goal of protecting urban Native Americans, but became one of two major activist organizations in the 1970s.  Taking their lead from those involved in the Alcatraz takeover, AIM organized the seizure of 74 federal facilities during the 1970s (PBS and KQED).

The other major activist organization born of the Alcatraz takeover was the Alcatraz-Red Power Movement (ARPM). ARPM had a long list of goals aimed at reinstating Indigenous populations with culture and identity. Their goal, “demanded inclusion in U.S. institutions while retaining their cultural identity” (PBS and KQED). They demanded that the government provide the resources, education, housing and healthcare promised in treaties. Another goal of the Alcatraz-Red Power Movement was to build colleges with Indian studies programs and cultural history museums funded by the federal government (PBS and KQED). Indigenous peoples involved with the movement felt the U.S. government should pay to recreate what it had almost totally obliterated. Though ARPM events sometimes turned violent, their last major protest was a peaceful one. The Longest Walk took place from February to July of 1978 (PBS and KQED). In an attempt to call attention to continuing problems in Indigenous communities, hundreds of Native Americans marched from San Francisco, CA to Washington, DC. The march symbolized the historical forced removal of Indigenous populations from their homelands onto reservations. After 1978, Red Power activism came to a close, largely as a result of suppression through violence by the FBI. From 1972 to 1978, many AIM and ARPM members were imprisoned, assaulted, and killed. There were few arrests made and most of the cases were not investigated at all (PBS and KQED).

Despite its eventual suppression, the Alcatraz-Red Power Movement did manage to accomplish many of its goals. By the early 1980s, over 100 Indian studies programs were created and many cultural museums were opened within the U.S. (PBS and KQED). Indigenous activism has also led to the creation of laws concerning the protection of lands, the protection of human remains, and the support of tribal sovereignty. One of the most important and all-encompassing pieces of protection legislation passed in favor of Indigenous populations is the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. Passed in 1990, NAGPRA allows for the return of Native American human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, or objects of cultural patrimony to descendents, affiliated tribes, and Native Hawaiian organizations. James Riding In has had extensive participation with analyzing NAGPRA and the proposal of provisions to make the law more complete. Specifically, he helped create the provision that allows for the return of human remains labeled “culturally unidentifiable” by museums and other institutions (Riding In). NAGPRA also provides for the protection of sacred land that holds burial remains. This and the National Historic Preservation Act, originally passed in 1966, are still the only resources Indigenous activists have to protect sacred lands (Gonzalez). In addition to protecting human remains and sacred lands, laws concerning religious freedom of Indigenous populations have also been passed. The American Indian Religious Freedom Act was passed in 1978, and declares that “it shall be the policy of the United States to protect and preserve for American Indians their inherent right of freedom to believe, express, and exercise traditional religions” (Michaelsen).   Laws in support of tribal sovereignty have been an increasing focus since 1970 (Biolsi). The Red Power movement had considerable sway in this area, bringing about through their protest efforts an abolition of the termination policy practiced by the government until 1969 (PBS and KQED). However, the movement to achieve recognition of identity has fallen short in this area. Sovereign laws concerning Indigenous populations are subject to a bottom line; any self-governing laws passed by tribal councils can always be overruled by the Federal government. The most successful sovereign laws have to do with economic policy.

As successful as Indigenous activism and the Red Power movement was in the 1970s in acquiring Indian studies, cultural museums, and religious litigation, there are still many flaws in the interaction between the U.S. government and indigenous populations. Real protection of land, that of reservation land and sacred land, remains elusive. As significant as NAGPRA was in affecting how Indigenous populations are viewed, Native Americans still retain a dependent nation status. With no real self-governing power, Indigenous populations lack the resources necessary to make significant changes in their communities. Many Indigenous communities are overtaken with poverty and alcoholism, and the negative aspects that come with these conditions.

In recent years, Native Americans have begun economic development programs. Economic sovereignty is the one area that Indigenous populations have been able to accomplish significant legislative advances. In an attempt to increase the economic condition and living circumstances of many Indigenous communities, reservations have seized on the casino and gambling industry. There has been much legislative success concerning the allotment of casino and gambling profits to the tribal governments that run them. Participation in the heritage industry is another economic development strategy. However, as Alexis Bunten points out in her article, “Sharing culture or selling out?” the heritage business can present a cultural problem for Indigenous peoples. Bunten uses the term, “commodified persona” to describe a way that the threat to personal heritage and beliefs are dealt with by Indigenous peoples in the heritage business (Bunten). This is just one example of the complex struggles American Indians still face today. Even as they undertake economic development programs to improve the lifestyle of their tribes and fight to reinstate and keep self-determination and identity among younger generations, they face continuous threat to the stereotyping and assimilation of culture.

Works Cited

Biolsi, Thomas. “Imagined Geographies: Sovereignty, Indigenous Space, and American Indian Struggle.” (n.d.).

Bunten, Alexis Celeste. “Sharing culture or selling out?” American Ethnologist, Vol. 35 Issue 3 (2008): 380-395.

DeMallie, Raymond. “The Lakota Ghost Dance: An Ethnohistorical Account.” Pacific Historical Review (1982): 51: 385-405.

Gonzalez, Mario. “The Black Hills: The Sacred Land of the Lakota and Tsistsistas.” (n.d.).

Michaelsen, Robert S. “American Indian Religious Freedom Litigation: Promise and Perils.” Journal of Law and Religion, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1985): 47-76.

PBS and KQED. Alcatraz is Not an Island: Indian Activism. 2002. 7 December 2009 <http://www.pbs.org/itvs/alcatrazisnotanisland/activism.html>.

Riding In, James. “Protecting Native American Human Remains, Burial Grounds, and Sacred Places: Panel Discussion.” Wicazo Sa Review (2004): Vol. 19, No. 2, pp 169-183.