Pursuit of Knowledge, Essay Example

In what ways may disagreement aid the pursuit of knowledge in the natural and human sciences?

Introduction

This paper addresses the different ways that disagreement may aid the pursuit of knowledge in the natural and human sciences. This is examined from the lens of theory of knowledge. Knowledge is one of the most important areas in the study of philosophy and science. Philosophers have used the tripartite theory of knowledge.  The concept of disagreement is to question the validity in the theory of knowledge and therefore adds re-enforcement to the rigour and explanation of variable subject matter.  This has been particularly invaluable in the natural and human sciences..

One epistemology that has been of profound interest to humans is that of philosophical scepticism  and how we can to acquire knowledge on a particular subject area. The concept of validity and whether our acquisition process is truly representative of knowledge and questions whether we truly know anything at all?

Jurors in the decision making process and the legal concept of “reasonable doubt

In this situation the concept of disagreement  between jurors in what constitutes “ reasonable doubt” in an important issue within Human Sciences.

The Claim

Jurors could not readily differentiate between evidences presented in court that are of varying strengths.  This in the absence of supported case information that places such evidence into specific context. An example being forensic DNA evidence that cannot stand alone in isolation in order to prove a specific point.  Where evidence is ambiguous or not supported by substantive case law it faulters and leaves the jury with the potential of not being able to agree on what constitutes reasonable doubt.

The example

A research study investigated whether mock jurors could differentiate between evidences presented based on the absence of case information.  The experiment provided the jurors with two types of information : (i) Evidence without the support of case information and (ii) Evidence supported by case information. (Lisa L. Smith M.Sc.)

The counter argument

The results showed that on evidence without case material the jurors on average identified the correct strengths of evidence. Where this was supported with additional case history the jurors on average inflated their opinions , particularly where the evidence was considered to be weak or ambiguous by nature. Hence the case study support skewed the juror opinion towards a verdict beyond reasonable doubt.

The dangers of knowledge advancement in the science of genetic engineering

The Claim

The concept of genetic engineering in medical practice has been challenged on both ethical and moral grounds. Those dealing with genetic programming of both humans and animals are interfering with the process of nature.  The moral issues are associated with the fact that we are now entering a world where we can change our human composition, our environment and determine what future generations will look like. Any new science requires ethical boundaries and standards of practice that need to be legally enforced to prevent malpractice or exploitation that may impact the lives of millions of people.

The example

A considerable ethical debate transpired over the successful cloning of a sheep from a single somatic cell.  This caused the National Bioethics Advisory Commission in the USA to be pressed into making a statement on the considerations applicable to the possibility of human cloning. The report provided by Harold Shapiro of Princeton University concluded the possibilities of this were real and as such there is a moratorium that bans the cloning of human beings at this point in time. (Shapiro).

The counter argument

With regard to the concept of cloning in both humans and animals there are three main considerations from an ethical perspective.  These being (1) Legal Ethical responsibility (2) The Moral Ethical dilemma and (3) The resultant social implications.  In so far as humans are concerned this is still a relatively futuristic concept.  The success with crops, plants and animals however points towards a rapidly expanding scientific and technological expansion in this area.  The concept of this being left in an unregulated environment creates a worrisome scenario for the human race.  Such ethical considerations require deep thought and still need considerable development in order to facilitate proper policy development in this area.

Disagreements in the validity of stem cell research

The claim

Stem cells are essentially the ‘utility and repair units’ which the body incorporates in order to maintain and regenerate those vital organs and tissues during a period of human life. Most of the stem cells are extracted from adult bone marrow and in certain cases umbilical cord blood.  These have been extensively used in the treatment of different cancers. These new scientific concepts have resulted in a certain amount of controversy from mainly religious and social conservatives. The main objections seem to arrive from the concept of genetic engineering and cloning. It is the pre-embryo stems cells removed from humans and the process of extracting these cells that religious factions have termed as murder.  (Nisbett).

The example

One of the arguments of the opposition relates to the fact that human embryo’s contain human DNA.  As such the researchers are extracting eggs from young women for cloning purposes.  This also involves the use of new drugs which it is claimed have not been adequately studied.   This in turn may expose these young women to unaccepted risks. In addition it is held that a conflict of interests exist in that there is misleading information that inaccurately describes the research goals and as such promotes the commercial exploitation of women. ( Beeson).  The concept of extracting materials that contain DNA is relative to extracting living tissues of humans and argued as tantamount to murder.  It is the argument that although such tissue that may be extracted from aborted fetuses may be construed as morally correct, the concept of extracting stem cells from embryos, kills the embryos, and raises the ethical and moral dilemma of using such human materials in order to save the lives of others.

The counter argument

The concept of acceptance of stem cell and embryonic research shifted towards the end of the 1990’s when more direct questions were being addressed on the medical research ethical and moral grounds of the experiments that were being carried out.  This paradigm shift was based upon two factors: (1) that stem cell research was more acceptable than embryonic research that crossed the frontier into the use, manipulation and exploitation of living tissue .  The origins of the embryos and the considered concept of therapeutic cloning. (Banchoff)

The concept of intervention from an ethical stand-point is really based upon the premise of someone doing harm to another.  Personal intervention is based upon an assessment where someone needs help and you can make a difference without incurring personal injury or making the current situation complex or worse.

Conclusion

Knowledge acquisition is an important part of helping people to remain informed on often complex and important topics. It is vital because it impacts our decision making capacity in our daily lives.  Inaccurate or erroneous knowledge can result in making poor decisions often with disastrous consequences.  Our views will vary based upon the integrity of the information and whether this is both factual and well informed.  One of the dangers of the internet is that is widely used as a source of information but a great deal of it is both inaccurate, misrepresented or lacks validity based on facts.

Works Cited

Banchoff, Thomas. “Embryo Politics: Ethics and Policy in Atlantic Democracies.” Banchoff, Thomas. Embryo Politics: Ethics and Policy in Atlantic Democracies. New York: Cornell University Press, 2004. Chapter 3 refers.

Diane Beeson, Abby Lippman. “Egg harvesting for stem cell research: medical risks and ethical problems.” Reproductive Bio-medicine, Vol 13 Iss 4 (2006): 573-579.

Lisa L. Smith M.Sc. “Understanding Juror Perceptions of Forensic Evidence: Investigating the Impact of Case Context on Perceptions of Forensic Evidence Strength.” Journal of Forensic Sciences Vol 56 (2) (2011): 409–414.

Nisbett, Matthew C. “Public Opinion About Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning.” Public Opinion Quarterly (2004): 131-154.

Shapiro, Harold. “Ethical and Policy Issues of Human Cloning.” Science Vol 277 (1997): 195-196 .