Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methodology, Essay Example

Detail the major differences between qualitative and quantitative research. When might one use a multiple of mixed methodology? Why and how would a mixed methods approach be applied to a research question addressing collaborative information behavior?  For this questions: there is a book called ” research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches” by John w. creswell . 4 edition

Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methodology

In Creswell’s (2003) “Research design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed methods approaches(2^nd edition),”  the author notes that,  “in the past two decades, research approaches have multiplied to a point at which investigators or inquirers have many choices. For those designing a proposal or plan, I recommend that a general framework be adopted to provide guidance about all facets of the study, from assessing the general philosophical ideas behind the inquiry to the detailed data collection and analysis procedures” (Creswell, 2003, p3). This author notes that the drastic change in research approaches has resulted in a growth in the use of mixed methods approaches in research. The book breaks down the three traditional research proposal designs as qualitative, quantitative and mixed method. A more detailed explanation of these methods is described below.

Quantitative Approach

• Develops knowledge through positivist claims.
• Utilizes experiments and surveys as strategies for inquiry.
• Utilizes predetermined instruments to gather data that produce statistics.

Qualitative Approach

• Utilizes constructivist perspectives to produce knowledge claims.
• Enacts methods of inquiry like narratives, ethnography, and case studies.
• Gathers open-ended data to establish themes of focus.

Mixed-methods Approach

• Utilizes pragmatic grounds to establish a base of knowledge.
• Makes use of strategies of inquiry such as the sequential or simultaneous gathering of data.
• Gathers text and numeric data.

The author notes that the above differences in the three approach designs has provided researchers with a choice that can better adapt to the research needs of the modern era. In the most recent edition of Creswell’s (2013) “Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed methods approaches(4th edition),” Creswell provides a more detailed interpretation of qualitative and quantitative research. He states that, “often the distinction between qualitative research and quantitative research is framed in terms of using words (qualitative) rather than numbers (quantitative), or using closed-ended questions (quantitative hypotheses) rather than open-ended questions (qualitative interview questions)” (Creswell, 2013, p.4). He goes on to credit qualitative research as the main approach utilized when a researcher seeks to understand the meaning ascribed to a human or social problem by a particular group or set of individuals (Creswell, 2013). He credits quantitative research as the design most utilized when researchers are testing objective theories through assessing  variables. He further points out that the variables are tested through different instruments to produce numerical data, which can then be analyzed for value using different statistical procedures (Creswell, 2013). Finally, he identifies mixed method research as the an approach that combines both of these methods.

Creswell (2003), notes that, “the situation today is less quantitative versus qualitative and more how research practices lie somewhere on a continuum between the two. The best that can be said is that studies tend to be more quantitative or qualitative in nature. Thus,  later in the chapter I introduce typical scenarios of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research” (Creswell, 2003, p.4). Finally the author points out that the actual practice of research entails much more than that would be expected from philosophical assumptions. This creates a necessity for strategies that involve three approach research methods in seeking, interpreting and disseminating information or data.

Creswell (2003), refers to Crotty’s  model of the Elements of Inquiry, first published in 1998, to show that in order to design an effective research proposal four key questions must be answered. These question being as follows:

1. “What theoretical perspective-philosophical stance-lies behind the methodology in questions (e.g., positivism and postpositivm, interpretivism, critical theory, etc.)” ?
2. What methodology-strategy or plan of action that links methods to outcomes-governs our choice and use of methods (e.g., experimental research, survey research, ethnography, etc.)?
3. What methods-techniques and procedures40 we propose to use (e.g., questionnaire, interview. focus group, etc.)?
4. What epistemology-theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical perspective–informs the research (e.g., objectivism, subjectivism, etc.)?

The diagram below shoes how these focuses work together  and how the the interrelation between the four questions function as a fundamental aspect of designing an effective research proposal.

Fig.1. Creswell (2003)Knowledge Claims, Strategies of Inquiry, and Methods Leading to Approach and the Design Process

These main four question demonstrate how there are interrelated levels to a research proposal and they map out all of the decisions required when establishing a research design, everything from those broad assumptions that come into play to the more practical issue that might be involved in collecting valuable data. Creswell (2003) points out that depending on the particular knowledge claims that are being made by the researcher and the strategies of inquiry and methods for collecting data, is most probable that a mixed method will serve the broad range of needs required by a particular study.

Mixed Method Applied to Collaborative Information Behavior

In Reddy and Jansen’s (2008) study on collaborative information behavior in the healthcare industry, the authors utilize a mixed method approach to understand how collaborative information works in a clinical context across two healthcare teams. The authors point out that there is limited understanding in regards to the nature of behavior, specifically in respect to how it evolves from collaborative information and its use within fields. The authors attribute this to the fact that most studies and  models of information behavior focus on the behavior of individual information seekers, and this undermines, or overlooks, the way information impacts the collective body of seekers as a whole. This is especially true in regards to medical practitioners.  Reddy and Jansen’s (2008) report on the findings of two empirical studies structured to assess the function off collaborative information behavior in organizational settings, specifically two healthcare teams. The authors find there is a distinct difference between individual information behavior and collaborative when it comes to the role information technology plays in the environment.  The authors note that, “there are specific triggers for transitioning from individual to collaborative information behavior, including lack of domain expertise. The information retrieval technologies used affect collaborative information behavior by acting as important supporting mechanisms” (Reddy and Jansesn, 2008, p.256).  When assessing how collaborative information behavior functions within the two healthcare teams, the authors further find that collaborative information behavior is fueled by an increase in the complexity of information needs. The following examples take a deeper look at how mixed-method approach works when applied to collaborative information studies.

Example 1:

The first example of mixed methodology style research as it’s applied to collaborative information behavior can be seen with the structure and execution of Cruz & Jamias’s (2013) mixed method study on social media usage by scientist. As the results and findings from this study were previously mentioned in detail, the following will briefly go over how this study used a mixed method design to assess the collaborative information behavior of scientists within institutions of academic study and across research organizations. For starters, 86 respondents were selected randomly, and this was done based on their broad and diverse disciplines in the field of science. The respondents were selected from a population of 847 faculty, professional staff and researchers.  Data for the study was collected through mix–mode collection. This means qualitative data was collected through methods like self–administered survey questionnaire, an online survey made through Google Docs, but then assessed quantitatively utilizing calculation tools.

Data Gathering and Analysis

The survey utilized a Likert scale as well as forms for direct input from respondents. This type of dual use of scaled questions and direct input is ideal for mixed method research as they enable researchers to incorporate the use of both qualitative and quantitative data. These surveys are usually developed and given directly to the identified respondents. Most variables that are measured in these studies can be adopted from previous studies. Likewise respondents have the option to take the survey online or by paper through a print version. Each respondent is given an estimated time to complete the survey in this case it was a two week period. The quantitative data, is represented through descriptive statistics such as percentages and averaged and the information is calculated from the gathered data using Statistical Packages taken from the Social Sciences (SPSS) software.

In the above mentioned study assessing social media usage of scientists, data retrieved from 86 respondents, where both qualitative and quantitative data was assessed. This mixed method research study effectively evaluated the socio–demographic profile of researchers at a university public laboratory. Of the respondent group, “faculty and REPS faculty comprised the majority (72.1 percent) of the research manpower, while full–time REPS made up a little more than a fourth (27.9 percent). According to age, the respondents were distributed to 35 and below (23.1 percent), 36 to 45 (22.1 percent), 46 to 55 (32.6 percent), and 56 and above (22.1 percent)” (Cruz and Jamias, 2013, p.23). In respect to the differing levels of education, respondents with masters level degrees accounted for (48.8 percent) of the population, 39.5 percent of respondents had Ph.D. Degrees, their BS/DVM and or post-doctorate degree holders had percentages (5.8 percent). Quantitative analysis found that the majority of respondents acquired their degrees from universities in the country (61.6 percent) (Cruz and Jamias, 2013, p.23).

The study also broke down the respondent groups according to disciplines. The break down of the group was as follows proportion of researchers based on broad disciplines is as follows: “agriculture and forestry science, 34.9 percent; business and management, 9.3 percent; engineering and technology, 11.6 percent; mathematical sciences, 5.8 percent; natural and physical sciences, 14 percent; social sciences, 22.1 percent; and others, 2.3 percent” (Cruz and Jamias, 2013, p.23). In addition to revealing the interdisciplinary nature of information science, this mixed method format allows for researchers to assess both qualitative data and quantitative data as it relates to the pursuit of information and the use of social media across respective fields of study.

It should be noted that 23.3 percent of the respondents stated that that they work in collaborative teams with other researchers at external institutions. These are specifically individuals within their field but at other universities. Another 23.3 percent stated that they work with other researcher, but their collaborations are within their same institution. Research further shows that (46.5 percent) of respondents stated they work in their respective departments. The study reveals that “a small percent (7 percent) work on their own. In respect to technology adoption behavior, 22.1 percent of the respondents consider themselves to be innovators, and this could largely be attributed to the perceived impact the researchers had on their use of social media” (Cruz and Jamias, 2013, p.23). A substantial number of the respondents, around (40.7 percent), stated that they adopted social media tools and internet resources early on. These qualitative assessments were then taken by the researchers and calculated quantitatively to produce mean scores. Each   question could earn a possible mean score of 1-5.

Fig.2.Cruz and Jamias (2013) Collaborative Authoring

Here the mixed method results are provided. This is a quantitative analysis of a qualitative result that measures the quality of social media usage. Another example can be seen with the image and video sharing, which came out to an average of (3.77), in addition to conferencing which earned a (3.66) are the two next familiar social media tools. The figure below shows how mixed method data from qualitative and quantitative research can be interrelated to produce results, specifically in information science research assessing social media use by scientists.

Example 2:

One of the the prime examples of a need to use a mixed method approach to assess the nature of collaborative information behavior can be seen with complex issues facing society and the research and information gathering and distribution involved with combating these issues. An example can be seen with global initiatives such as the push to combat human trafficking and the global effort invested in doing research, gathering data and information and ultimately disseminating that information specifically for the purpose of combating the issue. There are also instances where research needs to be done to gather information that needs to be used in a time sensitive environment. For example, in the case of natural disasters like earthquakes and tsunami’s, there is a wide range of data, of even more diverse variety of types, that if gathered could result in saving lives. In both cases, qualitative and quantitative, as alternative forms of research design can play a major role in the success drafting useful policy for actual changes in society.

Human trafficking is an example of a critical issue that could benefit from mix method research. Most of the victims of Human trafficking are children who have had their freedom and self respect taken from them. The crime has evolved into a form of modern day national and transnational slavery, and it significantly affects the stability of the economy, as well as the political structure, law enforcement, and public health through the threat of spreading disease (The Action Group, 2008, p.5). As organizations attempt to combat the spread of human trafficking, the dissemination of information becomes one of the most vital necessities for their success. Mixed method research provides the most tangible option as it allows stakeholders in this cause the diverse set of information retrieval methods necessary to efficiently access solutions for the problem. In Sheldon Zhan’s study done out of San Diego State University titled, “Sex Trafficking in a Border Community: A Field Study of Sex Trafficking in Tijuana, Mexico,” the researcher collects both qualitative and quantitative data from pimps and prostitutes in Tijuana Mexico. His study hypothesizes that human traffickers would find Tijuana Mexico, specifically conductive for trafficking activities. He notes that, “Tijuana, the largest city on Mexico’s northern border, has long been a major tourism and weekend destination for Southern Californians. Its red light district draws a large number of visitors from both sides of the border. With more than 60 million people crossing the busiest international border annually, there is no shortage of demand for fringe services” (Zhang, 2011, p.4). The main questions he seeks to answer are 1) to what level, or stage, coercion, deception,  fraud and force are used in transporting prostitutes into Tijuana, 2) how are the traffickers organizing themselves, and 3) what regulations could be implemented to deter this type of crime in the U.S? The methodology through which Zhang collected his data is a mixed method qualitative and quantitative research study that involves interviews and field observations, while extracting a set of variables that can be assessed numerically to produce newly defined results.  He summarizes his study by noting that, “the lack of  empirical knowledge of the scope of the problem exposes policy makers to varied persuasions based on wild speculation” (Zhang, 2011, p.116). It is through comprehensive mix method studies that policy makes can be better equipped with the accurate data necessary to make sound and effective decisions. This applies to all aspects of governance, but it is especially pertinent to critical issues like human trafficking. In addition, applying the field of information science to a geopolitical concern like human trafficking once again reveals the interdisciplinary nature of the field.

Example 3:

Studies on the travel industry, show it has long been a valued resource for human traffickers as they utilize their hotels, trains, airplanes, and bus systems to perpetuate illicit activity. Now travel companies in collaboration with the federal government and private advocacy groups have enacted initiatives that go well beyond the normal   philanthropic activities to combat the use of these facilities and for human trafficking (Mohn, 2013, p1). Mohn notes that, “at a news conference in September, Mr. Gilliland announced Sabre’s “Passport to Freedom” initiative, which will train its 10,000 employees in 60 countries how to identify and report potential trafficking incidents (Mohn, 2013 p.1).” Likewise, Amtrak, the Department of Homeland Security, and the Department of Transportation all publicly announced their effort to increase security efforts to avert human traffickers from trying to cross international and state borders. Amtrak specifically took on this challenge through partnering with the Department of Transportation who established a program to train more than 75,000 Amtrak employees on the trigger criteria to look for when trying to catch human traffickers in the act of transport (Mohn, 2013, p.1). Mohn further notes that, “the United States travel industry’s commitment to fight trafficking has gathered momentum since 2004, when Ecpat USA, or End Child Prostitution and Trafficking, introduced the Tourism Child-Protection Code of Conduct, a voluntary set of guidelines for the travel and tourism industry (Mohn, 2013, p.1).” Furthermore, the efforts put forward based on qualitative and quantitative research on the topic of Human trafficking allowed policy makers and hotel organizations to establish data conscious protocols that could be disseminated across the industry, field of study and to other stakeholders. All stakeholders involved in the fight to reduce human trafficking are able to make a collaborative effort based on the shared information which would not be available without competent research. Mixed Method studies in this regard for example the surveys associated with the Passport Freedom program where staffers trained are evaluated based on quantitative analysis reports as well as qualitative analysis reports to retrieve data that might best reveal the success of the initiative.  Another example of an issue that best benefits from mixed method research can be seen with homeland security studies like natural disaster data.

Based on information gathered from disasters and disaster studies, for example, the 2011 tsunami that hit Japan, which not only caused severe damage there, but traveled almost 5,000 miles and created $50-$100 million dollars of damage to the California coast, policies for preparedness, mitigation techniques, responses, and recovery to emergencies are drafted. This is a prime example of where mixed method research designs are needed because the data used in their studies ultimately impacts lives and the potential safety of others. Current research on tsunamis, earthquakes and other natural disasters reveal most stakeholders (ie those living in close proximity to a critical area) are completely unprepared. According to survey conducted, 38% of people living in California had no idea of what was required from them in case of a tsunami (Trieu, 2013). Also the number of residences registered form the L.A. county alert system is at a low. This number is below 1% of the total number of residents in the state (Trieu, 2013). In a field survey issued by the Tsunami Annex report the data revealed a 13 foot tsunami has the potential to create massive flooding and infrastructural damage. Numerical figures were evaluated quantitatively to reveals it would take an estimated 14 hours for a tsunami to travel from Chile to Australia, or 6 hours from Alaska to Hawaii. Below, the diagram taken form this data reveals a tsunami formed from an earthquake off the coast of Alaska could reach North California in less than 3 hours. The report refers to this impact region as The Pacific “Ring of Fire.” Below is a diagram of the Pacific “Ring of Fire.”

Fig.2. Tsunami Annex (2006)

In a survey issued by Jennifer C. Hunter and contributing researchers on the “Local Public Health System Response to the Tsunami Threat in Coastal California following the Tohoku Earthquake,” the author notes that “to evaluate the local public health emergency response to the tsunami threat in California, our target study population included all local public health, emergency medical services, and emergency management agencies in coastal or floodplain counties” (Hunter et al, 2012, p2).These surveys represent qualitative research assessing collaborative behavior of public service, specifically those in the emergence response fields. Hunter believes that through surveying these public servants, and compounding their qualitative responses with the quantitative data on tsunami times, a solid evaluation of estimated preparedness can be attained. This is a value that could potentially save lives, and reduce infrastructural impact of a natural disaster.

Conclusion

In sum, the three studies previously mentioned are based on achieving objectives and answering its questions through the use of descriptive analytical approach structured in the form of social survey of a sample group, but is also breaks down those qualitative findings into numerical data to assess the numerical data for value.  In this way the studies in these fields utilize mixed methodologies. This is why the ideal study for the field of information science one that allows for a diver set of cognitive and methodological approaches.

References

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (2 nd) edition. Sage.

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage.

Cruz, F. & Jamias, S. (2013). Scientists’ use of social media: The case of researchers at the University of the Philippines Los Banos. First Monday, 18(4), Retrieved from http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/4296

Mohn, T. (2012, November 8). The Travel Industry Takes On Human Trafficking. The New York Times.

Reddy, M. C., & Jansen, B. J. (2008). A model for understanding collaborative information behavior in context: A study of two healthcare teams. Information Processing &  Management, 44(1), 256-273.

The Action Group (2008). Recommendations for fighting human trafficking in the United States and abroad. Transition Report for the Next Presidential Administration.” The Action Group,. Web. 7 Mar. 2013.

Trieu, R. (2013, March1).Earthquakes, Maybe. But is Los Angles Prepared For A Tsunami?

Tsunami Annex (2006). Los angeles operational and emergency response plan. <retrieved from> http://lacoa.org/pdf/tsunami%20annex.pdf

Hunter, J. C., Crawley, A. W., Petrie, M., Yang, J. E., & Aragón, T. J. (2012). Local public health system response to the tsunami threat in coastal California   following the T?hoku earthquake. PLoS currents, 4.

Zhang, S. (2011). Sex trafficking in a border community: A field study of sex trafficking in Tijuana, Mexico. San Diego State University.