Repeated Reading Interventions to Improve Oral Reading Fluency, Essay Example

Abstract

This literature review focuses on the use of repeated reading strategies to develop and improve oral reading skills in elementary students. The materials examined in this review include studies on the efficacy of repeated reading as a means of promoting literacy as well as practical discussions about how the conceptual framework of repeated reading can be implemented in classrooms in practical ways. The strategy that receives the most attention in this review is Readers Theatre, a model that contextualizes repeated reading exercises as a group-participation activity. This review examines how repeated reading exercisescultivateoral reading fluency, how they can be implemented in the classroom, and how they can be aligned with courses outside of language arts instruction.

Keywords: reading strategies, reading exercises, elementary students, fluency skills, oral reading skills

Repeated Reading Literature Review

There has been a growing emphasis on literacy instruction at the elementary level. This trend has largely been driven by the increasing use of comprehensive testing; literacy skills are considered to be a fundamental component of education, and such skills are the focus of high-stakes tests for many elementary students (Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2009). With this in mind, educators have worked to develop and implement strategies that will improve literacy rates for students, and strategies that cultivate reading fluency provide a solid basis for the development of overall literacy skills (Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2007). Repeated Reading exercises have proven to be an effective strategy for developing fluency skills, and the following review examines the significance of fluency, methods for implementing repeated reading strategies, and other ways that repeated readings can benefit students.

Repeated Reading and Fluency

According to Young & Rasinski, reading fluency is generally defined as “the ability to read the words in a text with sufficient accuracy, automaticity, and prosody to lead to good comprehension” (2009, p. 4). The term accuracy refers to the ability to read words correctly without mistakes in pronunciation; automaticity refers to the ability to read words with a minimum of effort; and prosody refers to the ability to use expression, vocal inflection, and phrasing to invest the content with meaning. Oral reading fluency is considered to be closely associated with silent reading fluency; as such, oral reading is often used as an indicator of general reading fluency (Musti-Rao, Hawkins,& Barkley, 2009;Young & Rasinski, 2009). Reading fluency underpins reading comprehension and provides a basis for academic achievement (Rasinksi, 1990).

Fluency in oral reading is measured both objectively and subjectively, using quantitative assessments of words per minute (WPM) and words correct per minute(WCPM) and qualitatively through assessments that determine whether students render narrative text and dialogical text with sufficient inflection. Reading rate and reading accuracy are closely linked with reading comprehension, though improvement in reading rate is not, of itself, necessarily supportive of comprehension.  It is also necessary to read with “meaningful expression” (Young & Rasinski, 2009, p.5), as the development of prosodic skills helps students understand the words they are reading. Simply put, oral reading should sound like natural speech (Young & Rasinski, 2009; Shaw & MacLeod, 2011; Ates, 2009). Students with good oral reading fluency can read aloud without many errors in pronunciation, at a pace that allows them to render the text with expression and dynamic vocal inflection.

Repeated reading exercises have proven useful for helping students develop accuracy, automaticity, and prosody (Ates, 2013; Mraz, Nichols, Caldwell, Beisley, Sargent & Rupley, 2013). As the term indicates, repeated reading exercises involve the use of reading materials which students read multiple times in order to become more familiar with the text and to develop fluency skills. The texts used for repeated readings can include course-related materials, works of fiction, or any other age- and grade-appropriate written works (Young & Rasinski, 2009; Vasinda& MacLeod, 2011; Ates, 2009). Repeated reading exercises have been shown to be effective means of improving fluency; as students become more familiar with the materials they typically learn to read text more quickly, accurately, and with effective and appropriate inflection and vocal emphasis (Young & Rasinski, 2009; Shaw & MacLeod, 2011).  Repeated reading exercises are used to help improve general fluency, and as a means of providing interventions for students with poor fluency skills (Rasinksi, 1990;Young & Rasinksi, 2009).

Repeated Reading Implementation

Repeated reading exercises can be conducted in a number of ways, including the implementation of strategies that involve entire general education classrooms, small group exercises, and individual exercises and interventions (Ates, 2013). One approach that has received significant attention is the Readers Theatre model. Readers Theatre is a process wherein students read aloud from a script; unlike a play or other such performance, no sets, costumes, or props are used, nor are students required to memorize scripts. Readers Theatre participants act out the script by reading aloud; this provides the opportunity to develop and demonstrate oral reading fluency. Scripts for Readers Theatre projects can be based on virtually any appropriate subjects, and can be authored by teachers, by students in upper elementary grades, or accessed through educational resources (Young & Rasinski, 2009;  Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2007). Readers Theater scripts typically incorporate both narrative text and dialog, allowing students to demonstrate appropriate vocal inflection when shifting between the two(Vasinda & MacLeod, 2011) .

Reading rate and accuracy must be met with effective prosody to support the development of strong reading comprehension skills (Rasinski, 1990). Readers Theatre exercise provides students with an opportunity to engage with the material in a manner which extends beyond simple repetition. The participatory nature of Readers Theater invites students to become more deeply invested in the material; according to Young and Rasinski, “Students are more likely to practiceor rehearse (assistedand repeated readings)if they know that they willbe performing a reading for an audience” (2009, p. 5). Though implementation of Readers Theatre can be conducted in a variety of ways depending on the skill levels and needs of class groups or individual students, such exercises are typically utilized in group settings (Mraz, Nichols, Caldwell, Beisley, Sargent, & Rupley). Readers Theatre sessions are generally split into sections; first students are given the opportunity to review and rehearse scripts; after suitable rehearsal time, the students perform by reading the scripts aloud. According to Vasinda and MacLeod (2011) Readers Theater exercises allow students to become familiar with written material, to read it orally in a fun and inviting context, and to develop fluency and comprehension skills.

While Readers Theatre exercises are considered to be effective for cultivating fluency among groups of general education students, repeated reading exercises are also used as an intervention strategy for students whose fluency skills are lacking. In a study conducted by Musti-Rao, Hawkins and Barkley (2009), repeated reading exercises were used as interventions for a group of fourth grade students with poor literacy skills. In this study the targeted students were given repeated reading interventions in individual and small group settings, apart from the general education classroom setting. According to Musti-Rao et al (2009) the study participants showed significant post-intervention improvement in oral fluency; the researchers conclude that their results demonstrate that repeated reading exercises should be considered as an appropriate intervention for students with poor oral fluency. Ates (2013) provides an overview of an individual student who demonstrated improvement in WCPM scores from 37 to 52 after a total of 38 hours of repeated reading interventions; further assessments of this participant showed that improvements in prosody and reading rate aligned with the improvement in accuracy. A research study that focused on urban fourth graders with demonstrable reading and fluency deficiencies examined the implications for these students when offered repeated reading interventions. The subjects received repeated reading interventions utilizing academic-level-appropriate language arts books; after several weeks of interventions, every participant demonstrated improvement in fluency (Musti-Rao et al., 2009).

While Readers Theatre exercises are typically used as a group activity, Ates (2013) demonstrated that repeated reading exercises can be used as effective intervention strategies for individual students. In a study on the effect of repeated reading exercises on a single subject, Ates (201) noted that students demonstrating even minor difficulties with oral fluency skills may face significant challenges when progressing to higher grade levels. If the shortcomings are not effectively addressed the difficulties will become exponentially greater as the student is presented with increasingly-challenging reading materials (Ates, 2013). In a single-participant study Ates (2013) utilizes performance-based feedback; in short, the subject is provided with information about WPM and WCPM at the end of each repeated reading exercise. According to the conclusions delineated in the study, this approach provided positive reinforcement and resulted in marked improvements in the subject’s oral fluency (Ates, 2013).

Vasinda and MacLeod (2013) described a repeated reading exercise that utilizes the Readers Theater in a small group setting. The participants were members of a sixth grade class who recorded their Readers Theater exercises for use in a podcast. While Vasinda and MacLeod acknowledged that repeated reading is a “proven literacy strategy” (2011, p.486) they begin their discussion of the podcast exercise by asserting that effective oral fluency requires an “authentic purpose” (2011, p.487).  According to the researchers, the participants gained value from the podcast exercise specifically because they were aware from the outset that their performance would be recorded and would be available for other students, teachers, and family members to hear (Vasinda & MacLeod, 2011).  Young and Rasinski (2009) also comment on the subject of authenticity, noting that literacy research that focuses on oral fluency exercises such as Readers Theater provides valuable insight into how students actually use language. Musti-Rao, Hawkins and Barkley concluded that while their individual and small group interventions for fourth grade students did not reach “benchmark levels” (2009, p. 12), the participants did demonstrate improvement in their oral fluency. The repeated reading exercises in this study did not incorporate the same measure of authenticity as would be found in a Readers Theater exercise; the particular approach taken by the researchers may have been self-limiting as it required participants to read materials that were selected for them (Musti-Rao, Hawkins & Barkley, 2009).

Repeated Reading Exercises: Beyond Oral Fluency

Repeated reading interventions need not be limited to language arts instruction. In recent years a renewed emphasis on literacy has prompted educators to implement a variety of strategies in the classroom that focus on reading aloud, assisted reading, and other literacy-based exercises (Young & Rasinski, 2009). This movement to embrace literacy is not without its downside; educators have expressed concern that elementary students –especially those in the lower grades- do not always receive sufficient instruction in science or math courses (Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2007). Because reading fluency is associated with comprehension, repeated reading exercises can be used to help students learn and master difficult concepts such as those taught in science classes. Kinniburgh and Shaw (2007) suggested that Readers Theater exercises give students the opportunity to become familiar with challenging technical and scientific terms while in lower grades, thereby providing a firm basis for further learning when they advance to higher grade levels. Teachers who wish to expand the scope of repeated reading exercises can develop scripts that include explanations and definitions of scientific terms, thereby giving students an opportunity to develop fluency skills and learn basic science concepts at the same time.

The exercises developed by Vasinda and MacLeod (2011) in which participants combined a typical Readers Theater exercise with the production of a podcast demonstrated the broader implications such exercises have for educators and students. Readers Theater exercises can be implemented as relatively brief activities in which participants create and perform scripts in a single day or class period (Young & Rasinski, 2009); they can utilize scripts written by teachers for use by students (Rasinski, 1990); or they can incorporate specific and unique elements such as the recording of a podcast (Vasinda & MacLeod) or the creation of scripts based on science, history, or other subjects not specific to language arts instructions (Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2007). The extant body of literature on repeated reading exercises demonstrates that they can be used to cultivate and nurture skills that extend beyond oral fluency.

Summary

Because reading fluency is closely associated with reading comprehension, educators are tasked with implementing literacy strategies that cultivate fluency. Evidence has shown that repeated reading exercises are an effective means of developing oral reading fluency skills in the general education classroom, and can also be used as interventions for students with poor fluency skills. Repeated reading strategies can be contextualized in a variety of ways, from individual or small group settings involving materials selected by instructors to strategies involving entire classrooms. Readers Theatre exercises are often used for implanting repeated reading strategies in group settings, while individual intervention strategies are used for individuals or small groups. Readers Theater exercise and other repeated reading strategies can also be to teach concepts for classes outside of language arts. In sum, repeated reading exercises are a proven method for promoting fluency and comprehension.

References

Ates, S. (2013). The effect of repeated reading exercises with performance-based feedback on fluent reading skills. Reading Improvement, 50(4), 158–165.

Kinniburgh, L., & Shaw, E. (2007). Building reading fluency in elementary science through readers’ theatre. Science Activities: Classroom Projects And Curriculum Ideas, 44(1), 16–22.

Mraz, M., Nichols, W., Caldwell, S., Beisley, R., Sargent, S., & Rupley, W. (2013). Improving oral reading fluency through readers theatre. Reading Horizons, 52(2), 5.

Musti-Rao, S., Hawkins, R., & Barkley, E. (2009). Effects of repeated readings on the oral reading fluency of urban fourth-grade students: Implications for practice. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education For Children And Youth, 54(1), 12–23.

Rasinski, T. (1990). Effects of repeated reading and listening-while-reading on reading fluency. The Journal Of Educational Research, 147–150.

Vasinda, S., & McLeod, J. (2011). Extending readers theatre: A powerful and purposeful match with podcasting. The Reading Teacher, 64(7), 486–497.

Young, C., & Rasinski, T. (2009). Implementing readers theatre as an approach to classroom fluency instruction. The Reading Teacher, 63(1), 4–13.