Rousseau the Democratic Thinker? Essay Example

While the government and the laws see to the safety and well-being of assembled men, the sciences, letters, and the arts, less despotic and perhaps more powerful, spread garlands of flowers over the iron chains with which they are burdened, stifle in them the sense of that original liberty for which they seem to have been born, make them love their slavery, and turn them into what are called civilized peoples.^[1]

Thus begins Rousseau’s impressions and rumination in Basic Political Writings. The quote encapsulates a portion of his thoughts and attitudes toward liberty and, by extension, democracy. Rousseau seems to be an advocate, but seems keenly aware of its shortcomings and is critical of the definition that applies to democracies of his time, particularly his home of Geneva, Switzerland.^[2] What is so interesting about him is the apparent contradictions and conflicts that contain within his writing, which he seems to see clearly while others seem to glimpse only fragments of his thoughts and philosophy. Is he the noble savage as some proclaim, or is he the man who strives to be a benefactor of humanity, laying the groundwork and instructions on how to construct a utopian society? Such is the challenge of evaluating his work and establishing finite impressions and analysis of such a voluminous amount of material that often lead readers to different conclusions. The purpose of this essay is to establish through evaluation and analysis of key segments of Rousseau’s writings that he is a democratic thinker basing on his viewpoints on democracy, totalitarianism, and an ideal society.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s early views and beliefs on religion is a likely influence on his writings. He has years in apprenticeship and eventually attempts to convert to Catholicism (at the time he is a Calvinist).^[3] This knowledge is a factor in his opinions, but not a defining one. He writes:

We are told that a people of true Christians would form the most perfect society imaginable. I see but one major difficulty in this assumption, namely that a society of true Christians would no longer be a society of men.^[4]

He is referencing natural divine law, which he feels is essential to properly serve society. Note that he references in the quote a perfect society for religion to serve. Even with this faith, Rousseau is not accepting of the status quo just as with democracy. He strives for better and to establish what in his mind is a more ideal world in an era known as the Age of Enlightenment.

The age of enlightenment itself is a time of great upheaval in the world as many of the most established institutions of the time are suddenly in question. The existence of monarchies, the influence of the clergy, and the overall power structure of nations suddenly face challenges and dissent that they did not encounter before. As the voices grew louder, the dissension enhances and in countries such as France culminate in the French Revolution,^[5] and the overthrow of the monarchy. This, in turn, paves the way for the rise of Napoleon and the French Empire. As with many philosophers of the time and not by his own conscious choice, Rousseau perceives as embracing and helping the enlightenment movement as he makes his feelings and impressions state resolutely in his works. He held the democratic notion of freedom for all as he supports liberty and the concept of free nations for all. However, his writing shows that leaders are not usually to be people you can trust:

But without appearing to attack them directly, the bad will of the leaders easily reduces their effect to nothing. The law that is abused at the same time serves the powerful as an offensive weapon and as a shield against the weak, and the pretext of the public good is always the most dangerous scourge of the people.^[6]

The will of the people can result in hindrance when those in power utilize it to their advantage, making a nation less than entirely free, and therefore not what he would term full liberty. A revolutionary he may be, but nonetheless one who does think democratically.

The contradictory nature of his writings is what many find so confusing about him. Does he think democratically? Was he a primitivist?^[7] Did he advocate chaos? Does he support totalitarianism^[8] and despotism?^[9] Is he a Philistine?^[10] At varying times he meets all sorts of accusations and condemnations. Many openly question his sanity and the rationality of his writing, which often seem to contradict each other. It is challenging to establish a label for Rousseau because he does not neatly fall into practically any categorization. Many view him as a subversive and this mostly fits. Rousseau himself did not accept this or any other label, and it seems he thought that his thinking is clear and consistent. Labelling is a key in understanding both how Rousseau is thought of and whether you believe him to be a democratic thinker. As it relates to Rousseau the democrat, one interesting quote for analysis:

Let us add that no government is so subject to civil wars and internal agitations as a democratic or popular one, since there is none that tends so forcefully and continuously to change its form or that demands greater vigilance and courage if it is to be maintained in its own form.^[11] 

This is an acknowledgement that democracy is unwieldy and perilous. It is Rousseau’s sense that this type of government that designs to serve society is susceptible to the powerful and ambitious. He goes on to say:

Were there a people of gods, it would govern itself democratically. So perfect a government is not suited to men.^[12]

This is where he resigns to the fact that his views on democracy are so high that he feels it is unattainable or sustainable to men. Another quote from Rousseau reinforces this, as he postulates the ideal government would be one where everyone has one and the same interest. Since he deems this goal to be unattainable with mankind he writes:

Since this could not have taken place unless the people and the sovereign were one and the same person, it follows that I would have wished to be born under a  democratic government, wisely tempered. I would have wanted to live and die free, that is to say, subject to the laws in such wise that neither I nor anyone else could shake off their honorable yoke.^[13]

Once again adhering to a favorable opinion of democracy, he states that although not a component of his perfect society, it is the preferable alternative among those options available to mankind.

Given what he says about democracy, it is also important to analyze his viewpoints on totalitarianism for a contrasting opinion. Many feel he has this belief and that his writings reinforce this notion. For example, he felt that dictatorship at times could well serve society for purposes of expediency in times of crisis:

The inflexibility of the laws, which prevents them from adapting to circumstances, can in certain instances make them harmful and render them the instrument of the state’s downfall in time of crisis. The order and the slowness of formal procedures require a space of time that circumstances sometimes do not permit.^[14]

Hence to provide benefit to the people, a dictatorship by the right leader is a viable solution to a weak government or one in crisis. There is a caveat in his thinking, as he believes that dictators will naturally wish to make their appointments temporary to relieve themselves of the burden. When contemplating the possibility of a dictator wishing to maintain their power and authority, his response:

On the contrary, it seemed that such a great power was a burden to the one in whom it was vested, so quickly did he hasten to rid himself of it, as if a position that stood in the place of the laws would have been too troublesome and dangerous!^[15]

This is obviously not the case, as everyone knows that there are many despots and dictators throughout history that did everything they could to avoid relinquishing power. However, as Rousseau typically relates his viewpoints on what he believes is best for society as a whole, concludes this particular section of the writing with the following:

 …it is important to limit a dictatorship’s duration to a very short period of time that cannot be prolonged. In the crises that call for its being established, the state is soon either destroyed or saved; and once the pressing need has passed, the dictatorship becomes tyrannical or needless.^[16]

Thus he views totalitarianism as necessary for short periods of time to serve the common good and society, but that it will transform into something detrimental if left in a permanent state.

If the ideal society is ultimately a goal of Rousseau’s, democracy will not fully accomplish this. However, when you look at the best government, you also have to intertwine his beliefs in an ideal society. In this approach you do have to look at his altruistic goals as it relates to government as he sees it as an essential tool in serving the public. Regarding his thoughts on such a government to support a better society:

I am always astonished that a sign that is straightforward is overlooked or that people are of such bad faith as not to agree on it. What is the goal of the political association? It is the preservation and prosperity of its members. And what is the surest sign that they are preserved and prospering? It is their number and their  population. Therefore, do not go looking elsewhere for this much disputed sign. All other things being equal, the government under which, without external means, without naturalizations, without colonies, the citizens become populous and multiply the most is infallibly the best government.^[17]

So the community must thrive, and in so doing becomes evidence of a government that supports its people and its needs. Note that it is not sufficient to simply provide, but Rousseau indicates that it has to do so the most to maximize the benefit to the general population.

Rousseau gives democracy positive marks, but a total lack of confidence in humanity adhering to it correctly. Among other concerns he professes is its inherent weaknesses as such representation provides opposing viewpoints equal strength. This leads to a lack of unity making it more susceptible to violence. He does struggle with this notion because he also views democracy as an effective tool for societal advancement. Lack of human ethics and virtue are also considerations as these are two more shortcomings in his view that hinder societal development. This review includes analysis of his work and focuses on the three areas of most importance to evaluate his position as a democratic thinker. To understand his thinking one must consider viewpoints on democracy, totalitarianism and the ideal society, among others. He has faith in his vision for an ideal society where there is true equality, but also believes that democracy is as good as things will get due to the limitations that humanity exhibits.

Bibliography

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Basic Political Writings. 2nd ed. Tr. Donald Cress. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2011.

^[1] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on Science and the Arts in Basic Political Writings, translated by Donald A Cress (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, Inc., 2011), 6.

^[2] Geneva, Switzerland was an independent city state until the end of the 18th century.

^[3] Calvinism is a major branch of Protestantism that broke away from the Catholic Church starting in the 16th century.

^[4] Rousseau, On the Social Contract in Basic Political Writings, 247.

^[5] The French Revolution in the late 18th century causes a social upheaval in France, culminating in the overthrow of the monarchy and establishment of a Republic. It is believed that the Age of Enlightenment weakened the crown through its influence on the population.

^[6] Rousseau, Discourse on Political Economy in Basic Political Writings, 136.

^[7] A desire to imitate a primitive existence.

^[8] A centralized system requiring complete subservience to the nation or political entity.

^[9] Autocracy. A society where one entity rules with supreme authority.

^[10] A person who lacks knowledge or care of culture and the arts.

^[11] Rousseau, On the Social Contract in Basic Political Writings, 200.

^[12] Rousseau, On the Social Contract in Basic Political Writings, 200.

^[13] Rousseau, Rousseau, Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality among Men in Basic Political Writings, 31.

^[14] Rousseau, On the Social Contract in Basic Political Writings, 240.

^[15] Rousseau, On the Social Contract in Basic Political Writings, 240.

^[16] Rousseau, On the Social Contract in Basic Political Writings, 241.

^[17] Rousseau, On the Social Contract in Basic Political Writings, 211.