Sigmund Freud, Essay Example

Sigmund Freud was born in 1836 and died in 1939. He is best known as the father of psychoanalysis. Freud studied and theorized on the unconscious parts of the human personality.  He first developed a theory called the Oedipus complex after the Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex to explain human development in that he believed that sexual drives were the motivation of human life.  In addition, Freud is also known for his theory of human personality in which he defined as the id, ego and superego.  Although Freud’s theories were controversial, especially during his time period, Freud contributed a great deal to the field of psychology.  He introduced individual verbal psychotherapy, in which a patient spoke to a psychologist about their problems or concerns.   Freud’s work was also criticized by numerous individuals, such as other psychologists, scientists, philosophers and feminists.  Some psychologists and scientists believed in his research and continued to theorize from his theories; however, some thought that he set psychology back one hundred years.  In addition, feminists continually criticized his constant “super-ego” use of the man personality and degradation of women.

In order to evaluate the effects of a new medication for treating depression, a study has been created using a group of individuals who have a history of depression and depression drug use.  It is hypothesized that with the long-term use of the new medication, the patients will see a decrease in their depression symptoms.  The study will consist of the random assignment of 50 individuals to receive the new medication and 50 individuals to receive a control or placebo. This part of the experiment is the independent variable.  All of the individuals will be read guidelines that are followed per the ethical guidelines.  The individuals will receive their dosage daily and will be monitored on a weekly basis for 3 months. The individuals will be asked specific questions on their depression symptoms to indicate whether or not they are having symptoms or not.  This part of the experiment is considered the dependent variable.

Neuroscience in perspective with psychology studies the brain at the cognitive level (thinking level).  Psychologist that study neuroscience research how the psychological functions are produced by the brain.  The scientists do this by using the neuroscience techniques and instruments such as neuroimaging or MRI’s and PET scans, genetic analyses, and electrophysiology.  The scientists combine these techniques with the psychological experimental techniques, such as cognitive psychoanalysis.  Basically, the neuropsychologist looks at how cognition is mapped out neurologically.  This is a strength to the areas of psychology because neuroscientists are trying to connect to the other perspectives in psychology such as psychodynamics, behavioral, evolutionary, social-cultural, and humanistic approaches.   This allows the psychologist to investigate how the brain interacts with the environment.   The weakness to these approaches, however, is that it is somewhat theory, not fact. Psychologists are studying the brain and trying to pinpoint neuron activity to behavior, for instance; whereas, a behavioral psychologist is studying the person’s actual behavior.

Cognitive psychology studies the internal processes of human behavior. It studies how individuals think and process information.  This area of psychology has much strength in comparison to other perspectives on psychology because it uses the scientific method to research hypotheses and theories.  In addition, the work researched in cognitive psychology is coupled with the other perspectives.  For instance, results from cognitive tests and studies are coupled with neuroscience psychology or behavioral psychology in order to determine areas of the brain that are affected or reasons for behavioral issues.  There are weaknesses, to this perspective however. Cognitive psychology differs from other perspectives because it uses the scientific method.  Although this was listed as a strength it is also a weakness because some psychological perspectives do not use this method.  In addition, cognitive approaches believe in the internal mental state, whereas other perspectives believe in the unconscious, like the Freud theory.

Neuroscience studies the biological components that construct cognition and learning.  Cognitive psychology also uses combines with neuroscience to construct learning and cognition.  These sciences specifically look at the neural components in relation to mental processes in order to determine how individuals learn.

Cognitive approach on intelligence uses IQ tests to measure the cognitive processes an individual is able to perform, such as reasoning, memory or reading.  Neuroscience psychology looks at areas of the brain and compares these to individual IQ scores in order to determine if neural pathways are related to intelligence.

Psychology is not common sense. Although one might think that from their own experience or knowledge of human behavior is easy and common, there are limits to their knowledge.  This is a subject that uses scientific measures and methods in order to determine a hypothesis or theory.  In order to conduct this type of research one has to conduct an experiment using the scientific method with data that is reliable and replicable.  In addition, psychological research has been studied for hundreds of years and therefore, human behavior is not common sense, rather a multitude of conducted research developed over years.

A correlational research study fails to provide evidence of a cause-effect relationship because it indicates only the possibility of that cause-effect relationship.  It doesn’t provide an actual cause for the relationship.   An example of a statement that can imply correlation by not causation would be, “The more policemen at the scene, the larger the crime. Therefore, the policemen committed the crime”.

The fundamental attribution error is behavior that is externally caused.  In regard to the German people complying with Hitler’s orders to slaughter millions of innocent Jews, this can be attributed to the fundamental attribution error.  These people were behaving according to their environment; possibly fear of Hitler themselves and the possibility that they would undergo the same treatment.  The behavior of the Germans following Hitler’s orders can also be compared with Milgram’s research on obedience.  According to Milgram, it is suggested that the millions of people were merely following orders, despite their moral feelings about the situation. It had to do with their obligation to follow the authoritative figure, in this case Hitler.

Operant conditioning is the idea that there is a conscious interaction between our behavior and rewards and punishments.  Therefore, the individual’s behavior can be changed from learned behavior.  A behavior I would like to change is snacking at night in order to lose a few extra pounds.  In order to change this behavior using operant conditioning I need to use reinforcers.  The positive reinforcement would be the addition of something good to reinforce the behavior. For instance, a reward of some sort after each night of no snacking.  The negative reinforcer would be the removal of something bad to reinforce the behavior.  In this case, any type of snacks would be removed from the house.  In order to change my behavior of snacking at night, I can use punishment.  Every time I disobey the no snacking rule at night, I step on the scale the next morning to see no weight loss.  To further help my behavior change, I can use a reinforcement schedule. For instance, if I do not eat a snack after dinner for one week straight, I can a small dessert for one night after dinner.  I can also shape my behavior change.  I can ask a family member or friend to acknowledge my success through my weight loss once in a while, to shape my behavior. Once my behavior has changed, I should be aware of extinction. If there are no more consequences, whether or good or bad, my new behavior may fade or become extinct.

Mr. and Mrs. McDonald have an authoritarian approach to discipline. The advantage to this type of approach is that the children will listen in fear of their parents; however, the disadvantage is that there is no room for effective communication between the child and parent.  This can lead to a child with little social competence and self-esteem.  Mr. and Mrs. Reynolds on the other hand have a more authoritative approach to discipline.  The advantage to this is that there is a better communication between the children and parents and the children usually are more socially competent and have a higher self-esteem.  The disadvantage is that the children may not initially listen to the parent as much because they don’t fear them.

The hypothesis that low blood sugar is related to hunger is adequate.  Low blood sugar in the body triggers a signal to the stomach to produce hunger symptoms.  This is turn sends messages to the brain telling your body that you need food.

Identical and fraternal twins differ in both genetically and phenotypically.  Genetically, identical twins come from one egg and share the same genetic information.  That is why they look identical in their features.  Fraternal twins develop from two different eggs inside the womb and therefore have different genetic information as well as look different physically.   Behavior geneticists use identical twins to see the difference between genetics and the environmental influences because genetically, the twins are programmed the same.  Behavioral geneticists want to research the behavior of identical twins if placed or put in different environmental situations.  Genetics studies using twins have shown that almost all of the human traits are influenced by genetic differences in genes, such as genes for height or hair color.  However, genetic studies using twins has also shown that the environment can change a predisposed gene, such as intelligence.  If you have identical twins that were switched at birth and one received a good education and the other did not, there would be a difference in the IQ of each twin.  This suggests that the environment played a role in the learning behavior of the twin.