Terror Management Theory, Research Paper Example

Abstract

Drawing from Terror Management Theory, the current study takes into account whether individuals’ need satisfaction is necessary for protecting people against awareness of death. This paper entails two studies and suggests that after death reminders individuals who display increased need satisfaction demonstrate a lower worldview defense as elaborated in study 1. In study 2, the research demonstrates that individuals with increased need satisfaction display lower death accessibility. Furthermore, from the two experiments, it is evident that death reminders enhanced the desire to experience need satisfaction. It also influenced the participant’s motivation to approach an environment based on what is perceived to be supportive compared to the status quo. When analyzed together, the two studies show that need satisfaction can serve as a terror management function.  When conducting the studies, the participants completed a set of pre-measures that were intended to assess the basic need satisfaction as well as attachment style. Multiple regression methods were used to examine personal uncertainty as well as need satisfaction interaction, which were entered on the mean and the interaction term computed based on the variables with manipulation.

Study 1

Theories on terror management assume that human beings have certain mechanisms that protect them from the existential anxiety experienced due to the cognizant of mortality. The mechanisms originate from the awareness that death of a person is inevitable. According to the terror managing theories, the stress caused by the belief in mortality is a motivating force behind several cognitions and human behaviors. Many studies on terror management focus on mortality salience and how it impacts on the behavior of individuals. Ideally, mortality salience is the awareness by people that death is inevitable and cause the existential anxiety buffered by individual’s self-esteem or cultural worldview. The focus of many research studies has been on the impact of mortality salience on the well-being and self-esteem of individuals. However, few studies have been conducted towards determining the relationship mortality salience and the individual’s self-esteem. As a result, the research study will focus on the relationship between the self-esteem and the mortality salience of a person. The paper argues that self-esteem reduces the impact of mortality salience. Fives research studies on terror management are considered and summarized, to achieve the objective of the study. The studies focused on different topics on terror management.

A study by Schimel et al. (2007) was concerned with the assessment of the degree to which the threat associated with the worldview can increase death through accessibility. The research study indicates that if the cultural worldview can protect human beings from the thoughts of death, then it implies that weakening the structure has the potential to increase the death though accessibility. Five studies tested the hypothesis for this research. According to the finding of this study, the cultural worldviews can provide individuals with a sense of personal significance, meaning and continuity of life which eventually protect people from the terror that arise from the mortality awareness.

Kelley et al. (2015) in their empirical study focused on the issue of mortality salience assessing how disgust sensitivity can help determine the physical self. The findings of this research study show that disgust can contribute to the protection of an individual’s psychological self through fostering a strong and defensive reaction to the existential concern. The hypothesis of the research was tested using studies that investigate the relationship between the opposing responses to the process of terror management or mortality salience and disgust sensitivity.

Mortality salience can also increase the personal optimism of people who have the high attribute of self-control. In Kelley & Schmeichel (2015) research study, it is indicated that the prompts of individual’s mortality have the potential to tune attention towards accomplishing the positive information. In essence, the attention given to the positive elements in the life of people can help to cope up with death awareness. Besides, people with high attributes of self-control can be adept with the positive tuning based on the mortality salience. The study tested the hypothesis by selecting the respondents to identify their attributes of self-control and control mortality.

Zaleskiewicz et al. (2015) argue that mortality salience is critical when developing the terror management strategies to many people irrespective of their actions and behaviors. Notably, terror management theory suggests that individuals deal with anxiety originating from the fact and knowledge that death is inevitable. Individuals know the fact that death is unavoidable and hold to the sources of value that exists in the cultural worldview. One such source is acting prosocially. The research studies that tested the hypothesis include the dictator game, the ultimatum game and the quasi-naturalistic in study one to three respectively. The findings indicated that the selected participants of the study who were reminded of their mortality were generous as well as satisfied with the funds donated. Furthermore, the researchers concluded that individuals who are reminded of mortality demonstrated a higher level of satisfaction. Such behaviors were attributed to the suppression of thoughts related to death. Specifically, acting prosocially with the ideas of mortality can efficiently soothe the anxiety of death and eventually produce the psychological satisfaction.

Rutjens et al. (2009) expounded on terror management theory in their research work by suggesting that human beings can cope with the psychological threat associated with the feeling of death. It is achieved by reinforcing faith based on the cultural worldviews. The research studies involved three experiments in helping assess the link between the existential anxiety and the progress in belief. The results indicated that the mortality salience increases with the disagreement of the participants. In particular, the research shows that buffering belief in the progress can reduce the impacts of the mortality salience on the accessibility of death thought and eventually diminish the subsequent reaction that is defensive to the cultural worldview.

Methods

Participants

One hundred and twenty-six students from Florida International University were arbitrarily picked as the study’s participants. Out of these, 45% (n = 54) were male while 51.7% (n = 62) were female. Their ages spanned from a minimum of 14 years to maximum of 85 with the mean age being 23.35 years (SD = 8.66). The sample population comprised of 30% Caucasian (n = 36), 43.3% Hispanics (n = 52), 1.7% Native Indians (n = 2), 13.3% African Americans (n = 16), 13.3% African Americans (n=16), 5% Asian Americans (n=6) and 6 % who did not stipulate their ethnic background (n = 8). See Appendix 1.

Random probability sampling was used to identify the participants from Florida International University. In line with the guidelines governing informed consent, the would-be participants were informed of the nature and purpose of the research before being presented with the questionnaires. If a learner agreed through verbal means, he/she was presented with a questionnaire containing two sections with different questions. The first part required the participants to provide their details including gender, race/ethnicity, first language and status at FIU (student or not). The second section required the participants to describe their emotional responses regarding the thought of experiencing dental pain. It also required the research subjects what happens when they undergo a painful dental procedure. The third question in this section required the participants to complete a word-fragments with the first word that came to their minds.  The fourth question, on the other hand, required the participants to read an excerpt from an article published in a blog before documenting their thoughts on the same based on ten questions. They were required to either strongly agree or disagree to the questions based on a scale ranging from 1 to 6. The final question in this section asked the participants to indicate whether the first question answered in page one of the questionnaire concerned death, dental pain or getting into college.

The hypothesis that the researcher sought to test here is derived from the terror management theory was the death thought theory. The participants were given structured questions to prove the fact that their feelings and attitudes on significant aspects of personal and community life can lead to the knowledge of their personality. For instance, they were to describe the emotions that they develop when thinking about demise. This hypothesis involved testing of the fact that if a psychological structure like the worldview of the culture functions in buffering people from death awareness, then weakening such as structure increases the accessibility to death-related thoughts.

Results

The results generated through SPSS analysis provide initial support for the hypothesis of the study. In other words, MS or exposure to information on perspectives that threaten worldviews results in an increase in “Death-thought accessibility.” A statistical manipulation was conducted where a noteworthy impact X²=93.95, p<0.001.

A comparison of exposure to MS had the same effect on DTA as exposure to dental pain. As seen from the data, 33.3% of the respondents exhibited mortality salience (MS) leading to an augmentation of DTA, while 33.3% of the respondents exposed to information on dental pain also reported the same increase.

Access to world-view threatening information (independent variable) and its relation to death-thought accessibility (dependent variable) was dependent on gender. This means males and females exhibit different extents and implications associated with DTA. From the results, the male respondents had reported a 45% likelihood of accessing death thoughts. This was lower than that of the female participants who showed a 51.7 chance of DTA upon being subjected to worldviews threatening information. Chi-square test indicated a large effect as shown in Appendix II.

From the first One-way-ANOVA from the SPSS analysis, the results revealed monumental differences between the dependent and independent variable for death thought accessibility F (2,123) =1.80. p=0.17.

From the survey results, it is evident that racial backgrounds are crucial indicators of the prevalence of DTA among different racial assemblages. In this case, Hispanics demonstrated the greatest probability of accessing death thoughts after being subjected to information threatening their respective conceptualization ow worldviews about death. The analysis indicates that 43.3% of the Hispanics were more likely to access death thoughts. This was followed by Caucasians who had a 30% likelihood of developing DTA. African-Americans, Asian-Americans, and Native Americans reported 13.3%, 5%, and 1.7% likelihood of accessing death thoughts respectively. The final group (others) had a 6.7% chance.

The research, therefore, sought to know the extent of the racial/ethnic background in determining DTA. Through a One-Way ANOVA using different racial backgrounds of the respondents and DTA as the dependent variable, and ethnic/racial background as the independent variable, the results indicated that the relationship between the two variables was as significant as previously from the initial analysis., (F,124) = 178, p=0.170.

Further, the survey included respondents who were not citizens of the United States. From the results in the output table above, there were no significant variations in the likelihood of developing DTA. This results further demonstrate that the probability of these respondents of developing DTA upon accessing worldview threatening information was negligible. This is an indicator that regional background influences DTA. These results, however, provide support for the hypothesis of the study.

The study also sought to determine the ability of respondents to communicate in English, 80.8% of the participants reported fluency while 19.2% said they were not fluent. This is confirming that racial and the country of origin of different individuals is a key determinant of the DTA.

85% of the participants were drawn from Florida International University while 15% were non-students. The results do not indicate any correlation between being an FIU student or not and the likelihood of developing FIU.

Discussion

As predicted, there are high levels of accessibility to motility thoughts for people who have experienced traumatic events such as terror or those who have witnessed fatal events such as road accidents. The researcher also sought to find out the views of the participants on the issue of progress, where they were to agree or disagree that the current political and social systems have taken the worst direction in the safeguard of human beings against eminent thoughts of death. Moreover, thoughts about traumatic experiences prompt individuals to focus more on worldviews they perceive as reassuring.

Study Two: Literature Review

Terror management theory (TMT) contends that an individual can survive the psychological terror of their death by reinforcing belief in their cultural worldviews.  Based on the concept referred to as the Age of Reason (radical orientation of European communications, science, philosophy, and politics between 1685 and 1815), belief in progress has emerged one of the central aspects of contemporary Western philosophers. Rutjens, van der Pligt, and Harreveld (2009) anticipated in their research that faith in cultural worldviews serves as a barricade against concerns about mortality. The researchers conducted three experiments to examine the connection between faith in progress and existential anxiety.

Findings of the first experiment (Experiment 1) conducted by Rujtens et al. (2009) illustrated that Mortality Salience (MS) amplified respondents’ disagreement with an article on the deceptive idea of social development. The report also improved the accessibility or power of deep thought in the second experiment (Experiment 2). Manipulation of MS and faith in human progress occurred in Experiment 3. Research outcomes highlighted that augmenting belief in human or personal progress prevented the influences of MS on reduced subsequent defensive behavior and deep-thought accessibility to an essay depicting threats of cultural worldview.

The findings derived from Zaleskiewicz, Gasiorowska, and Kesebir (2015) support the conclusions of Rutjens et al. (2009). According to Zaleskiewicz et al. (2015), MS escalates the satisfaction obtained from prosocial conduct, especially by revisiting the “Scrooge” story. According to TMT, individuals tackle the likelihood of anxiety emanating from understanding the certainty of mortality by upholding value foundations existing within personal, cultural worldview. Prosocial behavior makes up one of the value sources, and existing pieces of literature propose that the reminders of certainty of death enhance the desire to act pro-socially (Zaleskiewicz et al., 2015). The researchers hypothesized that death reminders would trigger more generous distribution of financial resources along with more satisfaction because of altruistic acts. The findings illustrated that respondents reminded of their death were not only more willing to give but also more contented the more funds they donated using three gaming situations (quasi-naturalistic, ultimatum game, and dictator game),. Zaleskiewicz et al., (2015) concluded that prosocial actions sparked by death-thoughts efficiently calms mortality anxieties and in turn creates mental satisfaction.

Converging evidence has developed that the threat of cultural worldview enhances death-thought accessibility. TMT posits that if the social worldview safeguards persons from imaginations about passing away, then abating worldview framework should foster death-thought accessibility (DTA) (Schimel, Hayes, Williams, & Jahrig, 2007). For existential thinkers such as William James, TMT is a mask. They argue that the entire process of growing up, which encompasses the surrendering of an individual’s life to cultural ideals, causes, and values, as well as the hunt for a personal sense of importance, cover a person’s anxieties and fears about death (Schimel et al., 2007). That is, death is the disease at the center of human pretensions to contentment.

Disgust sensitivity also envisages defensive responding to MS. Along with the observation that disgust safeguards the physical self, other claims propose that it also supports the protection of mental well-being by enhancing robust self-protective responses to existential challenges (Kelley, Crowell, Jones, & Schmeichel, 2015). In their three studies, the current authors aimed to evaluate the connection between defensive reactions and disgust sensitivity MS and TM processes. Each of the three experiments included a personal difference scale of disgust sensitivity, a dependent magnitude of defensive responding, and manipulation of MS. The results highlighted sensitivity to disgust as a key to comprehending MS responses, and they uphold the perception that reactions related to disgust protect against both psychological and physical threats, for example, noxious elements.

Living organisms possess the motivation for self-defense. Among people, however, this primary ambition conflicts with the awareness of certainty of demise (Kelley & Schmeichel, 2015). Multitude repercussions of the intra-mental clash have been examined using the viewpoint of TMT, which suggests that knowledge of death displays a possibly crippling danger that wields a widespread effect in personal behavior and experience (Kelley & Schmeichel, 2015). According to the current authors, personal morality reminders may direct attention toward constructive information. Some people are, however, outperform others at surviving various psychological pressures; thus, it stands to contend that personal dissimilarities in survival skills can control progressive adjustments in MS. More precisely, affirmative alignments should proliferate in people possessing better survival skills. Overall, several kinds of literature assessing the relationship between MS and optimism, consistent with the work of Kelley & Schmeichel (2015), confirm that MS tends to promote individual optimism.

Study Two Hypothesis

With the addition of perspectives about the essay – Essay Perspective (Pessimistic vs. Optimistic) as an IV to the study, new hypotheses develop. The research anticipates finding the main implication of Essay Perspective. In particular, the study expects that respondents will agree more with the positive (optimistic) essay than the negative (pessimistic) essay. The researchers do not expect an overall primary influence of the Prime Condition. Precisely, the study does not presume respondents in the MS condition and those in the DP to vary regarding their assessments of the pessimistic or optimistic essays. The researchers do not anticipate finding a relationship between the Essay Perspective and Prime scenarios. Respondents in the MS class are expected to approve the Optimistic article more than individuals in the DP condition. However, MS participants will disapprove the Pessimistic Essay more than the DP respondents will.

Study 2 Methods

Participants

Two hundred and five participants took part in the study. The subjects were (n=153) male and (n=52 female) college students who were offered an opportunity between extra points or credit in exchange for their participation. The participants took part in the study during the class a class session of research methods. Four to five students participated in each session, and the researcher informed them that they would be taking part in the study. To assess the effectiveness of the self-manipulation was conducted using a 2×2 ANOVA on the items that were identified to evaluate how the respondents felt. The exclusion criteria for the study included expressing manipulation of the failure to take part in the study by not completing the questionnaire. The participants identified themselves as Latino, or South American (n=5), African American (n=3), Asian American (n=50), Arab American (n=6), Caucasian (n=143), and the remaining were either bi or multi-racial. Half of the participants were freshmen, a quarter were sophomores, fifth were juniors, and the rest comprised of 5^th seniors or graduates.

Materials and Procedure

A 6 item questionnaire was used to develop the impression the study was measuring an aspect of mortality. The tool was designed to assess the differences in how people experience gratitude in their daily life. Further, the participants were required to rate items on a 7-point Likert scale arranged from 1-7, that strongly disagrees to agree strongly). It was observed that the one-factor scale had the acceptable internal reliability that was mainly related to the peer ratings of gratitude. The worldview defense was measured using evaluative questions about the essays. The essays included an optimistic essay and pessimistic essays. Before, taking part in the study, the participants were required to sign a consent form and to agree or disagree to take part in the study.

Results

In the current study, the predictor variables include the mortality salience scores versus dental pain and school variables. The hypothesis was mainly based on the likelihood that there exist different categories of individuals who would show a tendency of susceptible to mortality salience. As a result, the initial steps of the analysis involved classifying the participants based on their levels of humanism as well as normativism.  It was noted that the participants who scored the highest or the lowest quartiles of the scores in humanism and normativism were categorized as a high humanist or high and low normative. The participants who remained in the middle quartiles were not labeled. During the experiment, after categorization of those who took part in the study, the ANOVA and the t-tests were explained in further detail. The analyses were conducted to determine whether self-esteem, negative mood, and identity had implications on mortality salience and the elicitation of death thoughts. The predictor variables that were used comprised or mortality salience and versus dental pain and school. The variables were recorded in the initial step of the regression equation to test the major implications, and the interaction term was recorded. When considered together, the regression analysis suggested that the main variable of the participant’s self-esteem and negative mood never had any effects on the relationship between the elicitation between mortality salience and death thoughts. Further, the analyses also suggested that there was no relationship between self-esteem and negative mood and the worldview defense.

Manipulation Check

From the results, to determine whether mortality salience manipulation worked as anticipated, t-tests were carried out. This was done by comparing the variables that were elicited on each of the worldview defense measures. There were no significant differences obtained. As such, it demonstrated that no manipulation worked. There were no differences that were observed suggesting that the manipulation never worked. Further, no differences were observed in the overall sample of the participants. The hypothesis suggested that the mortality salience had different effects which mainly depended on the type and strength of the worldview. Apparently, there was lack of a resolution to reveal the interactive effects.

Figure 1: Mean (+- SEM) death words completed by the participants

The figure above demonstrates that there is no variation between variables on how strong the participants defended worldview.

Fig 2: Normativism defense in mortality salience and dental pan conditions by participants

To test whether completion of death thought accessibility measure and the effects on worldview, t would be appropriate to understand the conditions of death thought the accessibility of the group given the death words rated as 1 and the group given the neutral words rated as zero. The scale was mainly used as a predictor of mortality versus death pain x 2 death words versus neutral stems ANOVA with three worldviews defense scores, which was considered as the best criterion variable. It was observed that there were no main effects that demonstrated death thought accessibility measure. Further, t never had any effects on worldview either the mortality salience or control condition.

Figure 3: Effect of mortality salient on word system

The figure shows a mean score for dental pain and word systems, dental pain and thought systems, and mortality salience and controls word systems. The figure also shows death thought word stems, mortality salience, and control word systems. Mortality salience and death thought word stems. It is evident completing the test measure did not affect the normative worldview in the experimental conditions.

Discussion

The study examined the generalizability of Terror Management Theory and the mechanisms through which individual differences operate through the process. It was noted that whether an individual’s worldview implied mortality salience on the traditional or cultural worldview may determine the strength or moderate between proximal defenses and death thoughts. From the result, the manipulation checks indicated that there was no difference, particularly on the number of death words of word view defense measures; hence suggesting that the analyses were carried out on the total of all those who took part in the study. Some hypotheses predicted that mortality salience effects depend on the strength of the worldview held.

There was also a hypothesized interaction effect between mortality salience and humanism that defended the position in the salient mortality condition when compared to the dental pain condition. On the contrary, non-humanist never defended humanism differently given the nature of the experimental condition. Despite the fact that the normative defended normativism, the mortality salience never increased the defense of the normative worldview, especially for the normative. However, contrary to what was expected, the humanists and the normative never showed any difference in their defense concerning the worldviews. Among the formative, it was observed that mortality salience never had any implication on the differential rating of the essays. On the same note, mortality salience never led to the defense of the worldview for the humanist. Although this provides support to the prediction that mortality salience would not result into the defense of the worldview for the humanists, it never fitted into the prediction that mortality salience would not lead to the defense of the worldview for humanists. Also, t never fitted to the prediction that the strength of mortality salience effect would differ from the perspectives of the humanists and the normative. It was also observed that the humanists and the normative never deferred on the accessible death-thoughts regardless of the of the experimental treatment.

Interpretation of Results

Manipulation Check:  As noted, manipulation never appeared to work. Given the analysis of all those who took part in the study, a number of the hypotheses stated that based on the different worldviews would moderate the defense of worldview. It was noted that it would not necessarily be observed in the analysis, which includes all the participants. Further, it was also noted that the manipulation never worked.  Some studies noted that self-esteem reduced the need for a worldview. Therefore, it can be suggested that by providing answers to the items on the self-esteem scale, this made individuals who took part in the study to be cognizant of their self-esteem, which mainly decreased the need to provide a defense to the worldviews. For this reason, one would argue that the participants with higher self-esteem provided a defense to their world-views compared to the participants with lower self-esteem especially after self-esteem was found.  It was also noted that no relationship existed between self-esteem and the total number of deaths-thoughts that were made available.

Some studies do not support the importance of implicit self-esteem. However, this was never evaluated or manipulated in the current study. Thus, the evidence of the analysis when compared with the current literature demonstrates that the measures of self-esteem were not the main cause of the lack of overall mortality salience effects. Based on Hypothesis, it was predicted that mortality salience increased the defense of humanist worldview. In essence, this position is congruent with terror management theory and the past and is also culture-specific. The findings of the experimental study suggest that terror management theory may be generalized to be able to provide a defense to the worldviews together with the defense of more specific and cultural worldviews.

Mortality salience never increased the defense of the normative worldviews considering the second hypothesis. Despite the fact that the normative never defended normativism, it was noted that the defense of the position never depended on the experimental condition. Therefore, there are potential responses that could fail the normative, and which could demonstrate a typical mortality salience. There could be the social desirability of bias. For instance, the wording of the essay could not be congruent with the messages that are taught in institutions of higher learning. It was also noted that although the essays never accurately represented the views of other people, they would either support or be against the normative worldview. Perhaps, the essays could provide an expression of a normative person more practically without necessarily being against the messages that are sent to the institutions of higher learning. It was also observed that the other potential reason that the mortality salient never induced the defense of the normative worldview could be attributed to the fact that the normative never responded to the mortality salience in the same manner that the humanists did. From the findings, it would be possible that the normative is mainly affected by mortality salience in the same way in which the other group of the humanists is affected.

General Discussion

The two studies provided converging evidence that supports the notion that needs satisfaction can be used to serve as terror management buffering function. In both studies, there existed a heightened need satisfaction that was mainly associated with world-view defense and death thought accessibility. Contrarily, these were considered to be heightened, particularly when individuals having lower levels of need satisfaction were constantly reminded of death. The two studies imply that a greater needs satisfaction mainly served as a buffer against awareness of death. Therefore, by such findings, it was observed that heightened death awareness enhance the desire to experience need satisfaction and motivated people to approach environments perceived as need satisfying and also to avoid the environments that are viewed as need undermining. Therefore, when considered together, the two studies provided novel evidence that assists in the understanding of need satisfaction as terror management buffering mechanism.

Limitations

The studies supported the hypothesis that need-satisfaction functions as a terror management mechanism. Moreover, several opportunities can be considered in future studies. Firstly, there is a difference noted in the first study compared to study 2. Thus, in study 1, it was observed that worldview defense was significantly reduced or eliminated as a function of measured need satisfaction. Hence, this could be observed as the result of the differences, especially in the timing of the measurements and where the probability of the new experiences and environments changed the participants need-satisfaction, which may have been more likely with increased lag times. Therefore, this would help explain the reason why the study 1 observed a reduction in the worldview defense.  All the studies were conducted among Americans. Therefore, future studies would be appropriate and do well if the studies would reach beyond this population.

References

Kelley, N. J., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2015). Mortality salience increases personal optimism among individuals higher in trait self-control. Motivation and Emotion, 39(6), 926-931.

Kelley, N. J., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2015). Mortality salience increases personal optimism among individuals higher in trait self-control. Motivation and Emotion, 926–931. doi:10.1007/s11031-015-9504-z

Kelley, N. J., Crowell, A. L., Tang, D., Harmon-Jones, E., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2015). Disgust sensitivity predicts defensive responding to mortality salience. Emotion, 15(5), 590.

Kelley, N. J., Crowell, A. L., Tang, D., Schmeichel, B. J., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2015). Disgust Sensitivity Predicts Defensive Responding to Mortality Salience. Emotion, 590-602. doi:10.1037/a0038915

Routledge, C., Juhl, J., & Vess, M. (2013). Mortality salience increases death-anxiety for individual’s low. Motive and Emotion, 303–307. doi:10.1007/s11031-012-9313-6

Rutjens, T. B., van der Pligt, J., & van Harreveld, F. (2009). Things Will Get Better: The Anxiety-Buffering Qualities of Progressive Hope. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin: SAGE Journals, 535-542. doi:10.1177/0146167208331252

Schimel, J., Hayes, J., Williams, T., & Jahrig, J. (2007). Is death really the worm at the core? Converging evidence that worldview threat increases death-thought accessibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(5), 789–803. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.789

Zaleskiewicz, T., Gasiorowska, A., & Kesebir, P. (2015). The Scrooge effect revisited: Mortality salience increases the satisfaction derived from prosocial behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 59, 67-76.