The Causes and Effects of Crimes Against Women, Research Paper Example

The issue of crime against women potentially encompasses a number of different areas. These could include stalking, voyeurism, abuse, assault, rape, domestic violence, violence in general, slavery, forced prostitution, harassment and fraud. It is the contention of this essay that most of these offences are not about sex or money, but instead essentially deal with power. This essay will be considering how power is used to dominate women, and different theoretical approaches to dealing with crimes against women. It will also be considering the often unreported medical and psychological effects that crimes against women can incur.

Power has been defined as the ability to control others, or to get others to do as you wish irrespective of whether they want to or not. In sociological terms there have been two broad approaches to power and the way it is exercised. The first is based on the views of the sociologist Max Weber who perceived power as being held by those in positions of authority within hierarchical structures. This power is exercised by those at the top of the hierarchical structure against those further down. Foucault on the other hand had a radically different view on power. From Foucault’s perspective power is not held in any one person’s hands but instead circulates throughout social institutions. Instead of being imposed from above, concepts of power are internalized by those concerned, who then proceed to regulate their own behaviour. From this perspective the patriarchal power that men hold over women isn’t biological in nature but rather learned through a process of socialization.

Patriarchy is the process by which men exercise dominance and control over women. Theorists such as Walby believe that heterosexual sexuality is one of the ways this is accomplished. Violence against women such as rape, abuse, wife beating and harassment in the workplace is a means of keeping women in their place. This is a response to the emancipation that women have achieved through the feminist movement. Research by Lawson and Sampson in the 1988 found that 75% of women who married in the 1960s remained faithful to their husbands during the first 10 years of marriage as opposed to only 46% of those who had done so in the 1970s (Haralambos, 2000, p. 152). This was indicative of growing female independence and autonomy in decision making that manifested itself in areas such as greater sexual activity and experimentation, improved contraception and an easier process for getting a divorce. This made it possible to exchange an inadequate husband for another. Greater sexual liberalization however also brought greater male resentment. This resentment has been exacerbated by recent employment based changes whereby women have not only become more involved in the workplace, but may also be the main or only breadwinner in the family. This diminishing empowerment felt by men has been held to be one of the factors fuelling increasing violence against women.

Today the levels of violence against women in some parts of the world have reached crisis proportions. Interpersonal violence against women is virtually endemic in some societies. It is estimated, for example, that 14% to 20% of women will experience rape at some point in their lives (Kilpatrick and Resnick, 1993, p. 24), 25% to 28% will be physically abused in a sexual-romantic relationship (Elliott and Briere, 2003, p. 86), and 8% to 24% will be stalked by someone known or unknown to them (Sheridan, Blaauw and Davies, 2003, p. 152-154). When added to the 25% to 35% likelihood that the average adult woman has been sexually abused as a child (Briere and Elliott, 2003, p. 86), the prevalence of interpersonal violence against women is a pressing social issue.

Direct Victimization Effects

It is axiomatic that many if not most acts of violence against women can cause not only physical but also psychological injuries which may often lead to acute trauma symptoms. These include Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) which can display symptoms such as flashbacks, intrusive thoughts and specific memories of the traumatic event. Other responses however are less obviously trauma related. Certain types of violence and victimization such as those found in domestic situations may result in repeated assaults over extended periods of time, producing more chronic and less specific psychological symptoms. Because these often occur in the context of an existing relationship such as marriage, interpersonal victimization experiences could easily cause negative perceptions of a woman’s sense of safety, intimacy and the trustworthiness of others. These can in turn lead to negative mood states and dysfunctional behaviours.

The Effects of Socio-Cultural Factors

Social and cultural factors can also play a major part in determining both the likelihood of being a victim of violence, or exacerbating the post traumatic effects of an attack or propensity for victimization. Examples include living in dangerous, degrading or exploitive, environments, such as those associated with poverty, social inequality, homelessness, prostitution, sexism and racism. The available levels of state funded support can also have an immense impact on ameliorating or exacerbating the situation. Research has shown that where the states offers significant levels of support in terms of counselling, adequate healthcare access, assistance in dealing with homelessness, poverty etc, that the traumatic side effects of violence can be significantly reduced (Allen, 1996, pp. 209-238). Lack of access to such basic needs on the other hand tends to increase victimization and a sense of disempowerment. Research also indicates that negative responses from a woman’s social network such as criticism, blaming responses, or stigmatization are especially powerful in magnifying victimization and a lack of self worth. In a culture where sexism remains a significant phenomenon, the tendency to blame or devalue women for their victimization may, in fact, contribute to their greater levels of post assault distress relative to men.

Symptom Categories

It has long been established that violence against women is not confined to or represented by any one disorder or cluster of symptoms. Each individual is different and will inevitably have unique responses to violent attacks. However it has been possible to identify broad categories of that incorporate many if not all of the previously mentioned effects. The most popular categories suggested by clinicians are rape trauma syndrome (RTS), battered woman syndrome (BWS), and complex post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Rape trauma syndrome.

In the early 1970s, Burgess and Holmstrom described a syndrome consisting of several phases that immediately follow a rape. These phases are as follows.

The acute phase consisted of emotional and physical symptoms of RTS, typically described as including anxiety and phobias, depression, anger, emotional and social withdrawal, sleep and eating disturbance, various signs of posttraumatic stress, self-blame, shame and guilt, somatization, and sexual dysfunction.

The behavioural phase: These changes may include problem solving difficulties as well as problems with mustering the energy to perform daily events and tasks. The ability to absorb new information is also significantly impaired.

The underground phase: During this phase victims attempt to return to a normal life and act as if nothing has happened. This period of avoidance or denial can last for short or extended periods of time during which the person attempts to give the impression that they have recovered from the incident. However the emotional trauma remains unresolved.

The reorganization phase: This phase is usually triggered by something that triggers a strong memory of the rape. While this phase may contain many negative experiences such as rage and a desire for violent revenge, it plays an important part in coming to terms with the rape and moving on.

The development phase: This is the point at which, with the appropriate support a woman can begin the process of re-gaining the ability to trust and to exercise control and independence (Burgess & Holmstrom, 1979, pp. 54-56).

Battered woman syndrome

The psychological effects of intimate partner violence have been conceptualized in the term battered woman syndrome. This syndrome was created, in part, to redirect focus from the personality features of women who are battered to the violence itself. BWS was thought to involve a wide range of symptoms, including anxiety and depression, posttraumatic stress, helplessness and passivity in the face of violence, and low self-esteem. Many of these symptoms were thought to arise from the repetitive, arbitrary nature of chronic domestic violence. The issue with this syndrome however has always been why women remain with abusive partners. Research has revealed this to be complex pathology which encompasses possible abuse as a child, and/or low self esteem that equates violence either as a form of attention, or something that they have caused and is therefore deserved.

 Complex PTSD

Complex PTSD is a less event-specific victimization syndrome which is thought to arise from severe, prolonged, and repeated interpersonal victimization, such as extended child abuse, chronic spouse abuse, and the multiple victimization experiences associated with forced prostitution or sex trafficking. Such traumatic, processes (as opposed to single catastrophic events) have been linked to a wide variety of psychological symptoms, including cognitive, somatic, and dissociative disturbance, chronic difficulties in identity and boundary awareness and interpersonal problems. Apart from the usual mix of physical symptoms, PTSD can also inflict a range of mental and psychological symptoms including; reliving aspects of the trauma such as flashbacks, intrusive thoughts and nightmares; memory avoidance techniques through keeping busy, repressing memories and emotional detachment; and finally emotional disturbance expressed as disturbed sleep, lack of concentration, irritability and aggression.

Other Health Consequences

Domestic and sexual violence against women leads to far-reaching physical and psychological consequences, some with fatal outcomes. While injury represents only a part of the negative health impacts on women, it is among the more visible forms of violence. The United States Department of Justice has reported that 37 per cent of all women who sought medical care in hospital emergency rooms for violence-related injuries were injured by a current or former spouse or partner (US Department of Justice, 1998). Assaults result in injuries ranging from bruises and fractures to chronic disabilities such as partial loss of hearing or vision, and burns may lead to disfigurement. Medical complications resulting can range from haemorrhage and sterility to severe psychological trauma. Studies in many countries have shown high levels of violence during pregnancy resulting in risk to the health of both the mother and the unborn foetus. In the worst cases, all these examples of domestic violence can result in the death of the woman – murdered by her present or ex-partner. Sexual assaults and rape can lead to unwanted pregnancies, and the dangerous complications that follow from resorting to illegal abortions. Girls who have been sexually abused in their childhood are more likely to engage in risky behaviour such as early sexual intercourse, and are at greater risk of unwanted and early pregnancies. (Heise, Pitanguy and Germaine, 1994, p. 46). Women in violent situations are less able to use contraception or negotiate safer sex, and therefore run a high risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS (Ibid)

Conclusion

The evidence presented in this paper reveals the far reaching impact that crimes against women can inflict. While it is outside the scope of this paper, it can be argued that the sheer magnitude of the problem is not only under-reported, but insufficiently supported by most developed states. Adequately dealing with such issues all too often become subsumed within the ideologically driven need to reduce public sector expenditure on the more vulnerable groups in society, who are precisely the people that need it most. As President Obama noted prior to the last election, women are not a minority group in society. There is clearly a need for the extended effects of crimes against women to have a far higher place on the political agenda than it currently occupies.

Bibliography

Allen, I. M. (1996) ‘PTSD among African Americans’ in A. J. Marsella, M. J. Friedman, E. T. Gerrity, R.M. Scurfield, and R. Monsour (Eds.), Ethnocultural Aspects of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Issues, Research, and Clinical Applications, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Burgess, A. W., and Holmstrom, L. L. (1979) Rape: Crisis and Recovery London: Brady

Elliott, D. M., and Briere, J. (2003). Physical and Sexual Violence Against Women in Intimate Relationships: Rates and Psychological Impacts in the General Population. Unpublished manuscript, University of Southern California.

Haralambos, M., and Holborn, M. (2000) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives London: HarperCollins

Heise L.L., Pitanguy J. and Germaine A. (1994) Violence Against Women. The Hidden Health Burden. Discussion Papers No. 225 Washington DC: The World Bank.

Kilpatrick, D. G., & Resnick, H. S. (1993) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Associated with Exposure to Criminal Victimization in Clinical and Community Populations. In J. Davidson & E. Foa (Eds.), ‘Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Associated DSM-IV and Beyond’ (pp. 147-172). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

Sheridan, L. P., Blaauw, E., & Davies, G. M. (2003). Stalking: Knowns and Unknowns. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse Vol. 4, 148-162.

US Department of Justice (1998) Violence by Intimates: Analysis of Data on Crimes by Current or Former Spouses, Boyfriends, and Girlfriends Washington: US Department of Justice, March 1998