The Causes and the Consequences of the Seventh Century Fitnsas, Essay Example

The rise of Islam was fast and furious, not to mention unexpected to the reigning empires of the era. With very little warning, a great power arose within the Arabian Peninsula, and in less than 200 years completely transformed the region while decimating the Byzantine and Sesanian Empires. The once sparsely populated and divided region suddenly coalesced around a common, and new religion. This religion was formed through the preachings and efforts of Mohammad, who was a dynamic, charismatic figure that also led victorious armies through a series of conquests that would continue after his death through successors. This culture developed rapidly, and often violently. Through this development, there were two civil wars fought during the 7th century, and the purpose of this paper is to examine the causes and consequences of those two events.

In order to understand the causes of the first civil war, it is important to understand the prior events and how they contributed to the tensions that led to open conflict. Considered by many the most unlikely place to find a budding empire, the Arabian Peninsula was sparsely populated by a largely nomadic population. Not only were they without government, they lacked even the most base structure, with groups and segments of the population divided and with little in common to their neighbors. There a few exceptions, such as the Nabataeans of Petra and the city of Palmyra in Syria, but there were not many notable developments in this region. The region largely remained this way until the time of Mohammad (Crone).

The unity created by Mohammad through Islam was a powerful and unifying force. From modest beginnings of preaching to a group of Arab tribesmen in a agricultural settlement, Mohammad began to amass followers of monotheism from both pagans and Jewish converts. In the early years Mohammad created the foundation of Islamic teachings, which in turn developed the culture of this new religion. Between this and the extensive military successes he accomplished that effectively united the once divided people of his land, he was well on his way to carving out an empire (Crone).

The rapidly evolving and new empire amassed great success in territory conquests under Mohammad, but after an amazing string of successes those left after Mohammad’s death were left with the task of organizing a new nation. It is notable that there was no plan of succession for Mohammad, and he had no sons or even direction on what type of leadership should be implemented. With such vast acquisition of resources resulting from all of the conquests, it was inevitable that not everyone was pleased with the distribution. When there was a decision made to reward conversions to Islam in a monetary fashion, it created conflicts between the newly anointed population that was converting, and those who were part of Mohammad’s previous circle of leaders. Tensions grew and when a group of war veterans killed the third caliph because they did not believe he was responsive to their concerns, the first civil war began (Crone).

It is fortunate that neither the Byzantines or the Iranians made any serious effort to retake land that was taken from them during this time. If they had, they would have found this new nation weakened and at war with itself. Fortunately for the followers of Mohammad, these two nations had been rivals that had fought over the Middle East for over nine hundred years. They were often at war themselves, and had recently been to war when the unknown people from the Arabian Peninsula attacked and was able to conquer a sizable portion of their lands. Ultimately the Sesanians collapsed, while the Byzantines were a significantly reduced power as a result of the Arabian attacks (Crone).

The consequences of the first civil war were based largely on the person that emerged as the new leader, and the decisions he made that had a significant impact on the young nation.  The new leader was Muawiya, a late convert to Islam that was related to the previous caliph. This former governor of Syria outlasted several of his rivals, all who also had links to the previous leadership. Among these rivals was Ali, who was the cousin and son-in-law to the prophet and was murdered, thus effectively ending the civil war. Under Muawiya and his successor, the ruling Umayyads became a successful dynasty, expanding their empire through conquests as far as Spain and India. Muawiya’s decision to implement hereditary succession by appointing his son to the position of caliph instead of holding an election was a very unpopular decision that ultimately contributed to the next civil war (Crone). The autocratic rule of the family also contributed to an Islamic schism, as many resented Muawiya’s rule and viewed his former rival Ali as the true successor of Mohammad.

Like the first civil war, the second civil war began with the death of a ruler. Muawiya’s son Yazid died prematurely, creating a leadership vacuum that ambitious rivals of the Umayyads used to their advantage. What is notable is that many of those who fought in the second civil war had links to the first, which is a strong indication that many of the outcomes from the first civil war were never fully resolved. The resulting war created many rifts within the large empire, as factions were able to take control of regions, such as Ibn-al-Zubayr in Iraq. The Umayyads eventually won, though their reputation became tarnished in some ways due to actions during the war, such as the bombing of a sanctuary in the holy city of Mecca (Crone).

There were many consequences that came to light at the end of the second civil war, not all of which were completely negative in nature. For example, conversions increased dramatically after the second civil war, increasing the diversity and the composition for those of Islamic faith. This had economic challenges, as income and tax revenue advantages were biased towards those of the preferred faith. This is one of the major reasons why so many were choosing to convert, but it created resistance on accepting those who claimed the new faith. Ultimately this led to a complete transformation of their economic system. Another consequence was a more formal schism, as those that held that the previous rival to Muayiwa, Ali, was the rightful caliph and the existing line of leadership was invalid. Those who believed this became shiites, while the others remained Sunni (Crone).

When viewed collectively, the combined impact of the two civil wars were evolutionary. As Crone points out in the conclusion of her work, issues that initially arose  during the first civil war were still hotly contested during the era of the later Umayyid period. Chief among these debates was the issue of succession from Mohammad, and the impact of a schism between Sunnis and Shiites. This disparity of views went nearly back to the beginning of the religion, as the two factions did not agree on the caliphs legitimacy. Although other major religions have also experience schisms, this one was very early in the development of Islam. This split was a direct result of the first civil war as Ali was slain and Muawiya was the one who succeeded. This rift continued into the second civil war, as part of that conflict involved Ali’s son al-Husayn, who was slain along with his family through an attempted revolt (Crone). The difference in beliefs between Sunnis and Shiites has its roots within these two civil wars, and this conflict continues to have impact to the present day. The ideological divide between these two factions creates continued conflict in the Muslim world and remains an unresolved dilemma through modern times.

A second primary consequence collectively from both wars was the rise of the Umayyid dynasty. Winner of the initial civil war, Muawiya became the first in this family dynasty, and there were early indications that hereditary rule would be implemented. When the empire was divided into a few huge provinces, it was his kinsmen that he placed in charge. He created alliances through marriage, such as his own to the daughter of the Qudaa confederacy in Syria, and then shared some of the governing authority with them. Toward the end of his life, he appointed his son as caliph and successor, thus solidifying hereditary succession and ensuring that the Umayyids would remain in power. This power continued through the second civil war and throughout the rapid expansion of the Islamic world, resulting in great acquisition of land, increase of culture, and rapid development. One could easily argue that the Umayyid dynasty is among the most successful and impactful of all time. It was under the Umayyids that Islam was able to spread over such a sizable portion of the globe, contributing to the large number of people who identify with this religion in the modern world.

Another lasting impact can be defined as the conflicts around the major monotheistic religions whose roots all come from the Middle East region. From the early times of Islam, the impact of the relationships between those of Muslim, Christian and Jewish faiths would continuously affect the entire world. During the time of Mohammad those of Jewish and the new faith were enemies, and this dynamic also continues to this day. Initially a peaceful relationship, it changed dramatically when Mohammad wrote the Constitution of Medina and began to regulate relations. Following his conquest of pagan lands, he expelled two Jewish tribes and destroyed another, setting the tone for an adversarial relationship that has always persisted (Crone).

In closing, the rise of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula is one of the most significant events in world history and continues to have a profound impact. The conflicts and animosities between nations, types of government and economics all seem linked to religion. Christianity and Islam share at least one common belief, and that belief is that they are holders of a sacred trust given to them by God. Ultimately the causes of the two civil wars in the seventh century helped mold a fledgling nation into a dominant world power. The consequences of those wars ultimately forged both a religion and a nation that had influence reaching far beyond its vast borders.

Works Cited

Crone, Patricia. The Cambridge Illustrated HIstory of the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press, 1999.