Theories: Freud, Jung, & Adler, Research Paper Example

Outline

Introduction

Literature Review

• Freud
• Jung
• Adler

Analysis

Conclusion

Introduction

In this literature analysis Freud’s theories concerning dreams will be researched and the works of at least three modern psychologists evaluated. Freud theorized that dreams were meant to preserve sleep; fulfill wishes that would have made the dreamer happy when awake  and are appropriate for application to counseling (Rycroft, 2010).

As it relates to Carl Jung (1961) his theories pertaining to spirituality contained in the psychology of religion incorporating subsequent theoretical development from three other psychologists will be addressed as a counseling strategy. Jung (1961) theorized that spirituality is essential to human existence from the standpoint of developing individuation, which he defines as the mystical heart of all religion.

For the purposes of this literature review regarding counseling Adler’s (1937) theory on holism will be researched utilizing the influences of three or more other contemporary theorists on the subject. Adler (1937) posits that holism when internalized from a metaphysical connotation is the spiritual sense of oneness. When considered in light of the outer it denotes synergy with one’s community of family, friends and foes.

Literature Review

Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939)-Dreams Theory

Freud’s (1939) dreams theories emerged from an interest in understanding pertinent aspects of one’s personality in relation to pathological conditions expressed by the body. The theoretical assumption pertained mainly towards interpretation of dreams. He contends that life is not an accident neither anything happens by chance. Importantly, a person’s actions and thought processes are activated by interactions contained in the unconscious mind (Gray, 2012).

The sociology of living often conflicts with the psychology of being. Therefore, to function in what is considered a ‘civilized society’ one has to outwardly confirm to norms. In doing so there is the tendency to suppress urges and inhibit impulses. This social control adaptation sets in motion a series of reaction because impulses and urges were designed to help humans fulfill their biological desires. Freud (1939) advances that these urges/ impulses are disguised and surface in dreams as the reality of who a person is or wants to become (Gray, 2012).

A realm of opportunity opens up during sleep, which allows one to demonstrate concealed desires of the id.  Freud (1939) cautions, however, that desires expressed through the id can be detrimental in real life experiences. They could become so disturbing and psychologically dangerous that the innate mechanism of the super-ego has to intercede to save the soul. It acts as a censor to translate the id’s turmoil into acceptable symbolic content (Gray, 2012).

Patricia Kilroe (2000) in her work on dreams explored the role of ‘metaphor, metonymy, and punning in the formation of dream imagery ……. proposing that all dreams are texts, but not all texts are narratives’ (Kilroe, 2000). The researcher continues to advance that while all texts must create content all content do not necessarily carry a logical message. In her analysis she concluded that a dream is a text (Kilroe, 2000).

Quoting Jung (1961) she further emphasized that the “manifest” dream-picture is the dream itself and contains the whole meaning of the dream’ (Kilroe, 2000). In clarifying Freud’ notion of the ‘dream façade’ phenomenon she explained that really there is no obscurity in a dream. Obscurity arises from lack of understanding of the text one is reading being transferred from the unconscious to conscious phase of mind. There are no false dreams in her ideology of dreaming it is a question of the inability to read the text and accurately make the translations from one phase of mind to the other. Learning to read the text is the major advantage of accurate interpretation of dreams (Kilroe, 2000).

Montague Ullman’s (2001) desire was to establish a relationship between dreams and social references. She posits that when social as well as personal referents appear in dreams they should be recognized since they provide insights on how unresolved social issues seep into the personal domain at an unconscious level (Ullman, 2001).

She further cited that metaphor is more than a figure of speech. Rather it is a symbiological representation of workings in the conscious and unconscious phases of the mind. Confirming Freudian theory she submits that dreams exhibit confrontation between the two worlds I which humans function. It consists of a social construct trying to submerge a psychological yearning (Ullman, 2001).

Roger M. Knudson (2003) conducted studies unfolding the notion of ‘Significant Dream as Emblem of Uniqueness: The Fertilizer Does Not Explain the Flower.’ Knudson (2003) contends that ‘dreams can be accounted for in terms of the dominant emotions and concerns of the dreamer at the time of the dream’ (Knudson, 2003). The researcher utilized Archetypal psychology’s aesthetic, phenomenological approach theoretical premise in explaining his assumptions.

From the investigation he concluded with reference to Bachelard (1969) that creative imagination executed during dreaming is precise in its function. It operates within the boundaries of being and becoming. Importantly, there is a constant effort to deform routines. Also, habitual constructs of being are altered. Subsequently, a reformation occurs, which informs one of the transmissions of becoming (Knudson, 2003). This is a very important theory in addressing hallucination during a counseling session.

Carl Jung (1875- 1961) – Spirituality Theory

Jung’s (1961) Theoretical premise on spirituality embraces a combination of assumptions from personal experiences with patients. He was convinced that there is a spiritual purpose for everyone that supersedes material goals.  The philosophy from this experience encompasses the belief that the goal of every human expression should be is to discover and fulfill that deep innate potential (Crowley, 2000).

Linking his assumptions to the main religious traditions Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Gnosticism, and Taoism Jung (1961) posited that life is a transformation journey, which he conceptualized as individuation. He describes individuation as the mystical heart of all religions enclosing a walk of identification with the inner self. During this interaction the individual recognizes a divine spark within his/her soul. Contrary to Sigmund Freud (1939) he recognized spiritual experience as a very important aspect of physical, social and mental well-being, especially, when applied to dreams during counseling considering human natrure. (Crowley, 2000).

Dorothy Woods Smith (2000) conducted studies investigating how spiritualty influences health and well-being in patients admitted to hospital. She used Roger’ Nursing model theory in conducting a literature analysis pertaining to the ‘Theory of Spirituality.’  The researcher indicated that Rogerian scholars consider spirituality to be a potential of all human beings. They advance the model based on this premise combining their assumptions to the theoretical integrated framework on spirituality (Smith, 2000).

Adapting this model four basic assumption pertaining to spirituality emerged. First it embraced a confident feeling that life is meaningful, which imitates a knowing that there is purpose in life. Secondly, it resolves a commitment towards striving for and attaining actualization. This in itself brings a positive vibration to living (Smith, 2000)

Thirdly, is brings about an awareness that there is a interconnectedness of life. This inculcates a knowing that we affect each other by or actions and thoughts. The pain of others can be felt emotionally. Fourthly, it is described as the development of a belief paradigm to perceive life as sacred. Conclusions were that spirituality is positively related to health and self- actualization (Smith, 2000).

Arnaldo Oliveira (2003) contends that ‘spirituality should not be neglected as a legitimate organizational topic of study, and more research on the impact of spirituality in the workplace should be conducted.  He conducted studies regarding ‘The Place of Spirituality in Organizational Theory.’ After reviewing a number of organizational theoretical assumptions he concluded that ‘if the tenets of open systems, institutional, and neo-institutional theories hold, and if spirituality is a cultural phenomenon, then spirituality might in?uence organizational behavior and culture’ (Oliveira, 2003).

Kelly B. Cartwright (2001) advanced a novel account of spiritual development intended to address individuals’ changing conceptions of their relation to an External Power as she embraces an exploration into ‘Cognitive Developmental Theory and Spiritual Development.’ The researcher developed a series of assumptions from psychology to show where cognitive development and spirituality are closely related even though theoretically there is no sold evidence (Cartwright, 2001).

Conclusions show when individuals move into the formal operational level of reasoning, according to Piaget (1969) they ultimately are capable of reasoning logically about the abstract   Here is where the spiritual development process begins as they apply abstract meanings to situations in their lives. They then perceive these abstract principles as vehicles through, which communication to another dimension of life can be accessed. At this point they no longer focus on what be seen before them or visible with the eyes, but extend themselves into the invisible from which all substance is derived (Cartwright, 2001). Jung (1961) attained this level when he began designing theory of spirituality and individuation.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) – Holism Theory

Alfred Alder (1937) embraces theoretical assumptions regarding ‘spiritual holism’ indicating that it is a sense of one-ness implicit in the connection of one-ness advanced by most religious cultures around the world. He also projects views regarding pragmatic and materialist approaches towards contextualizing communities. His notion posits that communities emerge from the socio-historical-political forces that shape them(King & Shelley, 2008).

Therefore, community psychology from Alder’s (1937) assumptions is the subtotal of synergetic impulses of the community. This constitutes another dimension of holism as espoused in the theory of one-ness, beside its spiritual notion. His major concern was “the absolute truth and logic of communal life’ (King & Shelley, 2008).

Erickson (2007) examined holism from a nursing –back- to- wholeness psychology. The researcher confirmed that ‘health and well-being depend on attaining harmony in relationships and healing is the journey toward holism’ (Erickson, 2007). The variables presence, intent, unconditional acceptance, love, and compassion participate in the emergence of holism by bringing meaning to life experiences re-igniting purpose (Erickson, 2007).

In support of holism as advanced by Adler (1937) David Bohm (2000) advance the theory of implicate  and explicate order to confirm that order of space and time were not the dominant factors determining  relationships of dependence or independence of different elements. He explained that there was a deeper order indwelling individuals responsible for the outward expression of the idea (Bohm, 2000).

Bohm (2000) continues to contend contradicting reductionism theory soon it would be discovered that elementary particles are the fundamental building blocks of the entire universe. Physicists who are still questioning these theoretical paradigms will eventually be exposed to this truth in their intermingling research explorations. He believed that holism makes complete sense and is most coherent explanation for the theory, which infiltrates matter mind and society (Bohm, 2000).

Lars (2006) posits that Adler’s (1937) holism assumptions are closely related to systems thinking. He cited that the theory embodies thinking of a whole instead of separate parts. Precisely, he advanced that the concept can be adapted to many disciplines across sciences other than psychology. System can be perceived as being composed of related parts. There are rules pertaining to functional as well as structural boundaries. These boundaries in themselves become the decision making mechanism or force of interactions or inter-relationships (Lars, 2006)

Ultimately, it receives input from and likewise returns to the environment transforming elements in the process (Lars, 2006). Essentially, Alder’s (1937) holism assumption as it relates to construction of society through synergetic compulsions has a strong relationship with these paradigms of system thinking energy.

Conclusion

The foregoing discussion embraced an analytical approach towards exploring literature pertaining to theories espoused by Freud (1939), Jung (1961 and Alder (1937). From Freud’s (1939) wealth of theoretical perspectives the author choose to deliberate on his dreams theories incorporating contemporary viewpoints in the discussion. Jung’s (1961) notion of spirituality was explored with the aim of linking theoretical assumptions to other aspects of psychology such as, cognitive expression in humans.

From Adler’s (1937) works holism was explored from two perspectives ‘spiritual holism’ and ‘constructed holism’ being derived from synergetic human interactions as demonstrated in community holism. In adding value to holism system theory as well as of implicate and explicate order theories were adapted to clarify holism as both a concept and theoretical premise. When dreams, spirituality and holism are applied to counseling it helps the therapist receive a deeper understanding of human nature and the need for counseling.

Reference

Bohm, D. (2000). Wholeness and the Implicate Order. London: Routledge

Cartwright, K (2001). Cognitive Developmental Theory and Spiritual Development Journal of Adult Development,  8(4), 22-4

Crowley, V. (2000). Jung: A Journey of Transformation: Exploring His Life and Experiencing His Ideas. Wheaton Illinois: Quest Books

Erickson H. (2007). Philosophy and theory of holism. Nurs Clin North Am. 42(2):139-63,

Gray, R. (2012). Lecture Notes: Freud’s Conception of the Psyche (Unconscious) and His Theory of Dreams.  Washington. University of Washington.

Hall, C.S., Lindzey, G., & Campbell, J.B. (2007). Theories of Personality (4th Edition).  New York: John Wiley & Sons.

King, R. & Shelley, C. (2008). Community Feeling and Social Interest: Adlerian Parallels, Synergy, and Differences with the Field of Community Psychology. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 18, 96-107.

Knudson, M. (2003). The Significant Dream as Emblem of Uniqueness: The Fertilizer Does Not Explain the Flower. Dreaming, 13(3), 16-23

Kilroe, P. (2000). The Dream as Text, The Dream as Narrative. Dreaming, 10(3), 14-22.

Lars, S. (2006) General Systems Theory: Problems, Perspective, Practice. World Scientific Publishing Company.

Oliveira, A. (2003). The Place of Spirituality in Organizational Theory. Journal of Business Ethics and Organizational studies.9(2), 17-21

Rycroft, Charles (2010). A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. London: Penguin Books

Smith, D (2000). A Theory of Spirituality. Portland. University of Southern Maine School of Nursing

Ullman, M. (2001). A Note on the Social Referents of Dreams. Dreaming, 11(1), 7-12

Lars, S. (2006) General Systems Theory: Problems, Perspective, Practice (World Scientific Publishing Company)