Why Do We Say “Information Science?” Essay Example

By definition, science is the study of structure and behavior of our physical and natural world. Science is knowledge and science is also the process by which on can keep adding to this knowledge. Since, time immemorial, humans have tried to study and understand nature, how stuff works, the earth and environment.

1. The physical sciences – physics, chemistry, astronomy
2. The earth sciences – geology, meteorology
3. The life sciences – Zoology, botany, genetics.

These branches further subdivided into many more. We know that Newton’s law of mechanics is a part of physics whereas evolution pertains to biology. However, Newtonian laws are required when it comes to studying evolution. Similarly, various mathematical formulae have been derived from physics and chemical equations. A chemist can well explain the pathway of any drug to a biologist.

There are three broad categories of traditional discipline (Palmer 2001)

1. Natural Sciences – studies how the world is made up of. Its structure and function
2. Social Science – studies human world and predictions
3. Humanities – studies human behavior, achievements, experiences.

Science is a systematic way of thinking. It involves making theories and hypothesis. Engineering is utilization of these theories in the practical world and technology is optimization of this knowledge. Interdisciplinary science is an in depth knowledge of science with its different disciplines complementary to each other. Simply put, this means researchers from different fields of expertise come together to combine their research in non-traditional and innovative ways. As researchers continues to work in their respective fields, they becomes comfortable with the lexicon of language common to their field of study. If researchers attempt to crossover into fields outside their comfort zone, it becomes difficult for them to grasp the deeper more introspective aspects of the new field of study. This is when interdisciplinary science comes in handy. If researchers of various disciplines collaborate, sharing knowledge and experience, it will lead to better results. As all platforms impart knowledge, new knowledge is generated from this process. This knowledge can then be used to solve complex problems. Every branch of science is dependent on another type. No branch of science can define “science” on its own. Similarly, no single scientific method cab be singularly followed. Scientific experiments are done by unique individuals that come from different backgrounds, socio economic structures and their creative energies are different. The norms and values of scientific community, its expectations are varied in nature. Hence it would not be wrong to say that science is “social” in nature. The social nature of science is also dependent on the fact that scientific success relies on collaborations, communication, cross checking and peer reviews between researchers and scientists. A single individual scientist cannot produce science on his/her own.

In the past few years modern science has seen a tremendous growth in the production and usage of new technologies. For example: robotics, computers, smart-phones etc. All of these mentioned technologies are widely used in our day to day lives. People use technology for leisure (booking tickets online, holiday planning, and reading), enhance their creativity (digital cameras, Photoshop), Gain information and knowledge (eBooks, online libraries, audiobooks). Technology plays a vital role in developing and driving our world in many ways. Similarly technology has its impact on the educational system and learning processes. It helps people learn faster and learn more.

Seeing this, it would not be wrong to assume that these technologies will continue to flourish and will continue changing human lives. The questions that arise are, will the increased use and development of new technologies improve our quality of lives? Or would they cause security threats, frustration among humans. Technology is no longer a privilege. It plays a major role in changing the way we live. As computers and smart-phones are becoming more and more affordable, they have started to dominate our everyday work. They connect us globally and soon it would be almost impossible to separate technology from our daily activities. Therefore, it becomes more and more important to study how this technology affects us and changes our behavior. The aim of Information science is to study of interaction between humans and technology. Till the 70s, Human-Computer interaction (HCI) was left to professionals in the Information technology field (Carroll 2013). With the advent of personal computers and mobile phones almost everyone was touched by computer technology. These days there is hardly a device that does not use computation. Very few places on earth do not have mobile phones.

What is Information Science?

Information science is the academic part of Information systems that deals with the study of humans with information. It studies the changes in human behavior in contact with technology. With the advancements of computer technology, there has been a tremendous influx of information. The core goals of information science are

• To create a safe space for inquiry.
• To provide easy storage and access information.
• To preserve information (in the form of history).
• To use ethical methods for sharing information.
• To study how information is created and used.
• To develop new technologies that aid in advancement of the information industry.

Till the earlier part of the 20^th century; Information science was only limited to librarianship, bibliography, and documentation. However with the increase in discoveries of new applications and technologies there was a need to broaden the scope of Information sciences. The sharing and exchange of information is a multi-faceted process. It deals with complexities that are linguistic, social, technical and psychological. Hence, information science is no longer just gathering and documentation of information. It is an interdisciplinary science that measures and contains information explosion, formulates documentation and storage of information, studies user behavior of seeking information and devices ways of securely sharing information.

In “The Invisible Substrate of Information Science,” Marcia Bates (1999), notes that,  information science, mainly focuses on the way information is structured and organized. This positions the value of information science in the format and not the content itself.  Bates points out that most scholars working outside the field are note aware that there is substantial value in  in the study of information structure, presentation, and they way it’s sought. Bates states, “I believe that this is one of the chief reasons our field is commonly thought to have no “there” there” (Bates, 1999, p.1047). The author further notes that most Ph.D. scholars or high school graduates, rarely notice organization and structure information, because they tend to be preoccupied with content and its importance.  Bates points this out at as the main difference alternative sciences and information science, specifically that structure is a core focus of the field (Bates, 1999,p.1045). Bates offer three important questions related to information science and what it should be able to answer: “1) The physical question:  What are the features and laws of the recorded information universe? 2) The social question:  How do people relate to, seek and use information?, and 3) The design question:  How can access to recorded information be made the most rapid and effective?” (Bates, 1999,p.1045). Bates defines information science as the control and management of information. In this respect information science has expanded on what, some might say, telecommunications. The definition of information science provide by Bates represents the exact position smart phone technology has achieved in society. Information is primarily exchanged through mobile devices on a daily basis, but with innovative social networking applications which were created specifically for designed for mobile devices, like Facebook Home, WhazApp, Google Hangout, and an endless array of games and creative applications there is a very thin line between smart phones being a valued resource and them functioning as a social crutch.    This emphasis on communication and the value of information science in the field of communication, makes the relationship between information science and impact of mobile devices, specifically mobile phones, “being an interdisciplinary field of study should not be solely applied to IT applications, but at the same time it should not be extended to the entire realm of communication studies” (Ingwersen, 1992). Buckland (2012) states, “we conclude that if information science is concerned with what people know, then it is a form of cultural engagement, and at most, a science of the artificial” (Buckland, 2012, p.1). This defines information science as a surface science focused primarily with the information that drives others to communicate.

Interdisciplinary Relations of Information Science

According to NSF definitions, interdisciplinary science is “a mode of research by teams or individuals that integrates information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or more disciplines or bodies of specialized knowledge to advance fundamental understanding or to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline or area of research practice” (“Committee on Facilitating Interdisciplinary Research,” 2004, p.1). Interdisciplinary relations were introduced in Information science to remove the challenges of understanding how information affects human behavior. Clearly, by just increasing or decreasing the amount of information available or by making new technologies and tools to store and decipher information were not enough (Bush (1945) and Mooers (1951)). Let us look in details at few of the academic disciplines that make up information science.

Library science

Librarianship involves storage and preservation of records. It is an institution of the cultural and educational world that is known to document human history throughout the world. Similar to information science, library sciences also deal with keeping records and sharing them. However the tools used in both these disciplines are different. Library sciences basically deal with human skill sets. These kinds of skills can be developed with experience and may or may not require formal training. They  are based on assumptions, experience and the attitude of individuals. The common ground between library science and information science connects on the similarities of their social roles, specifically as it relates to  and in their general concern with the problems of effective utilization of graphic records. But there are also very significant differences in several critical respects, among them in: “(1) selection of problems addressed and in the way they were defined; (2) theoretical questions asked and frameworks established;(3) the nature and degree of experimentation and empirical development and the resulting practical knowledge/competencies derived; (4) tools and approaches used; and (5) the nature and strength of interdisciplinary relations established and the dependence of the progress and evolution of interdisciplinary approaches” (Tefko Saracevic 1992, p. 13). All of these differences show how librarianship and information science are two different fields of study that share a strong interdisciplinary connection. Library associations, along with information systems, can enhance creativity, innovate, and meet users’ needs and expectations when it comes to gaining or sharing information. Since librarians are information literate themselves they can pass on information literacy to other users.

Information technology or Computer science

Increase in digital libraries and computers and associate applications have changed how information is interpreted. Many computer scientists and IT professionals research and develop information. A computer engineers designs and makes computers. Software professionals design programs, software and applications. Other IT professionals then use these programs to troubleshoot and remove any bugs in these programs. They work together to make sure hardware, software and user interface (UI) is in harmony so that computers can carry out the tasks businesses and individuals need from them. Information scientists then regulate policies and allow for secure data/information sharing portal. These disciplines are not the same, but they exist harmoniously within the same discipline, performing different complementary tasks.

Cognitive science

Cognition explains how the mind works. Cognitive science in itself is an interdisciplinary science as it deals with the biological construction of the brain, its psychology , its manifestations and measuring of intelligence. Belkin, 1990 studied the importance of information retrieval among information science. We know that machines cannot think on their own, they rely on artificial intelligence to get their work done. Since information science deals with how information is stored, processed and retrieved, psychology plays a very important role. This takes into account the brains ability to grasp, remember and thought process. Cognitive science also understands how information is package. The understating of this can lead to better information usage. “At any given time, then, the cognitive environment of an individual is the set of facts and assumptions that are manifest to him at that time” (Harter, 1992). If Information science explores the cognitive environment it will be easier to understand information interactions between users and organized information is always more effective.

Sociology and communication

Sociology deals with how society works its culture, norms and interaction. Recent studies demonstrate that the field of information studies (IS) borrows theories from different disciplines of social science and humanities (Pettigrew and McKechnie,2001). It has been observed that technological advances affect individuals as well as societies. With growing technology humans adapt their social world. Man has been communicating for a long time. Initially man communicated with signals, and then, by using language. The philosophy of communication is as old as human beings themselves. Communication is rooted in how humans form relationships, groups and how they live in a society. In the field of science, it is standard for scientists to communicate with one another. They collaborate to solve problems, discuss results and get feedback. Any type of communication is a form of sharing information. Communication assists you to put forward your thoughts and ideas. It results in clarity and is an important tool of cross checking the validity of information. Science is a cumulative process which means that every new discovery is based on an already known fact. For example if someone wanted to build a car, he would not need to invent a wheel; since the invention of wheel has been communicated through ages. Communication increases information literacy. Communication studies help to realize the need for information, the ways to provide it and its effective usage.

William Aspray (2011) makes the connection between information science and other disciplines. He argues that traditional information domains, such as Libraries & the Cultural Record, represents a conscious but less than comprehensive set of the information domains. He further points out that outside these traditional domains there are academic disciplines like computer engineering, information technology, computer science,, operations research, and management information science” (Aspray, 2011,p.230). The main point aspray makes is similar to the argument Bates (1999) makes which is that all of these fields rely on information and through studying how information is sought, interpreted, presented, organized and structured, as well as an even wider range of the aspects associated to the exchange of that information and its impact, information science is inherently a part of virtually every field of study in existence today. If not on a core level, in respect to context, information science is definitely relevant within every field of study on the surface.

Porter and Rafols’s (2009) study on the interdisciplinary nature of science and whether science as a whole is crossing into other disciplines, the authors study literature from 1997-2005. They assessed research across different domains. They broke down each research domain into its on subject category and then grouped all of these domains into what they referred to as  Wen of Science (WoS). What they researchers found is that there was substantial proof growth and interdisciplinary use of outside research across different research domains but that the growth was minimal. The authors note that, “cited disciplines and references per article (both show about 50% growth), and co-authors per article (about 75% growth). However, the new index of interdisciplinarity only shows a modest increase (mostly around 5% growth)” (Porter and Rafols, 2009, p.719). For example the science map below produced in the study reveals that within different bio-tech based fields, for the most part, the same information or studies are not used throughout fields except for within Biomed Science and Reproductive science. Even the relationship between these two sciences is not significantly noticeable or heavily emphasized.

Fig.1.

Porter and Rafols (2009) Collaborations across science fields.

The above chart reveals something very telling about the sciences, specifically in regards to the unwillingness of most scientists to interact of collaborate with other scholars outside their fields of study. Unlike most sciences however, information science is one which crosses all barriers, largely due to the fact that it actually entails the processes of communication involved in academic research itself. Wilson (1997) takes the position that information science is most interdisciplinary when information behavior comes into play. He bases this premise on the key fact that the study of information behavior focuses primarily on how individuals seek out information and what motivating factors contribute to this process. As this is the core motivation driving academic study, it makes sense that information behavior would work as one of the key reasons why information science is interdisciplinary and becomes a relevant factor within other fields of interest.

In Wilson’s (1997) study, “Information Behavior: An Interdisciplinary Perspective,” the author notes that, “this paper reports on a recent review of the literature of “information behaviour” as it is studied in a variety of disciplines, other than information science. As a result of the review, areas of research interest to information science are identified and a general model of information behaviour is proposed” (Wilson, 1997, p.551). Wilson takes the position that information seeking behavior is an essential aspect of information science but that it serves as one of the core cross-roads between information science and other disciplines. The extent of the literature on information needs and information-seeking behaviour within the field of information science has been recorded on a number of occasions as extending into several thousand reports and journal papers. However, as this author has noted in a recent review (Wilson, 1997), information science does not have a monopoly on research in these fields. Several disciplines are concerned, to some extent, with understanding how people seek and make use of information, the channels they employ to gain access to information, and the factors that inhibit or encourage information use. These include: the study of personality in psychology; the study of consumer behaviour; innovation research; health communication studies; organizational decision-making; and information requirements in information systems design (Wilson, 1997, p.551).

In Cronin’s (2008) study, “the sociological turn in information science,” he breaks down the history of social scientific thinking in information science. Before elaborating on the intricacies that exist within the marriage between information science and sociology, Cronin provides some insight on the definition of information science citing a popular description of the field stated by Irene Farkas-Conn, who established a reputation for chronicling the field of information science in North America (Cronin’s, 2008, p. 210). The history of the American Society for Information Science follows  that information science during this profound era for change in the world, represents the development of information becoming a new body of knowledge, which forms out of several disciplines. Here Cronin clearly points out that the liberal nature of information science, specifically in its ability to draw from multiple disciplines is that it makes interdisciplinary. Cronin notes, “being as it is both relatively youthful and modest of size, routinely interacts with and draws liberally upon other subject fields for intellectual enrichment; it engages enthusiastically in, to use Julian Warner’s terminology, ‘exoteric and esoteric communication’ [7] in an effort to achieve theoretical maturity”(Cronin’s, 2008, p. 210). When Cronin states that information science is relatively youthful, he is referring to the fact that information science is a new focus of study which makes it applicably relevant to a wide range of other intellectual work. He credits Gernot Wersig as being the one of the first to point out this factor when he noted that “inter-conceptual work is arguably a defining feature of any ‘new/postmodern science”(Cronin’s, 2008, p. 210). He further notes that, many of the aspects that make information science intellectual at its core, such as information, knowledge, representation and communication are “neither owned by information science nor likely to be assembled into an entirely credible canon without the judicious addition of perspectives and approaches taken from established disciplines such as computer science, linguistics, philosophy, psychology and sociology, as well as from newer fields such as cognitive science and human–computer interaction”(Cronin’s, 2008, p. 210). The way information science interrelates to all of these disciplines is through its emphasis as a focus of study information science targets aspects of presentation.

The most commonly discussed aspect of information science, specifically in regards to the acquisition of information is information seeking. Information seeking does not occur until pressure is applied to a situation in which an information need merges. As Case defines it, “an information need is a recognition that your knowledge is inadequate

to satisfy a goal that you have”(Case, 2007,p.5). The last chapter of Interactive Information Seeking, Behaviour and Retrieval Ian Ruthven and Diane Kelly (2011), talk about multimedia (MM) information representation and access models. The authors  divide MM document representations into “metadata-driven, “piggy-back” text and automatic annotation, and content-based representation and retrieval. The piggy-back method refers to applying textual support (e.g.,as context) to the MM object. The chapter gives relevant examples of feature-based representations using color, shape, audio, video, and so on” (Ruthven & Kelly, 2011, 235). This is an example of how information science is able to approach the importance of information presentation and asses its true impact. Taking into account aspects like color, audio, video and shape, specifically in respect to how it influences both how the information is disseminated and interpreted, in many ways in this digital era could be more significant than the content of that information. In essence, information science examines the context with which people receive information when other fields fail to make the connection. It is Ingwersen’s (1992) belief that emphasis must be placed on the valued of information, He notes that “the emphasis is on the quality of the interaction between generators and users of recorded information” (Ingwersen, 1992, p.115). In Case’s (2007), “Looking for information: A survey of research on information seeking, needs, and behavior” Case defines information as any difference one perceives in their environment, or any aspect one notices in the pattern of their reality. Case bases the foundation of his study on three core principles about information. In this respect Case touches on cognitive need. He points out that one knows they have an information need when the information they have access t is not proficient enough to satisfy their thirst for knowledge. Case reveals how information needs can develop into information seeking which in turn can be defined as an aspect of information behavior. He notes that, “information seeking is a conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap in your knowledge” (Case, 2007,p.5). As the gap in knowledge creates a wanting that must be fulfilled, Case points out that this information need is a constant need that requires continuous pursuit. This is how he defines information seeking. “Information behavior (hereafter,“IB”) encompasses information seeking as well as the totality of other unintentional or passive behaviors (such as glimpsing or encountering information), as well as purposive behaviors that do not involve seeking, such as actively avoiding information” (Case, 2007,p.5). It is through information need that information behavior emerges.

Problems Addressed by Information Science

On the topic of the problems information science addresses and the types of scholars and researchers it attracts Bates (1999) notes that “consequently, information science tends to draw multi-talented people, people who enjoy the mixture of kinds of cognition that the nature of our field requires to solve its research problems”(Bates, 1999, p.1047). Bates attributes this to the reason why information science as a field has failed to settle on one methodological paradigm standard. She goes on to state that, “for one thing, we need this methodological variety to solve these problems, and for another thing, the people in our field, by our multi-talented natures, enjoy and tolerate that variety much better than is the case in other fields”(Bates, 1999, p.1047). Bates points out that if a field can solve its research problems through the use of a smaller range of methodological and cognitive approaches, then the researchers required for this field of studies can be more singular minded, but with information science that is not the case as it takes from a diverse range of cognitive and methodological approaches to address and solve problems across disciplines. This mufti-faceted nature encompassed by information science as a field enables it to address a wide range of problem, specifically in regards to how information is disseminated across different fields of study. The following are a few of the types of problems information science attempts to resolve.

 Information explosion

By creation of bibliometry and effective citation methods, information scientists have been able to contain the wealth of information currently available in the field. Effective indexing techniques and the development of vocabulary different for different fields of study have also been helpful.

Information manipulation:

By applying computer science to store an record documents, it has become easier to contain, store and edit documents. Large databases can be stored and searched.

Information validation:

Information scientists researched user’s information seeking needs and preferences devised ways in which current and relevant information could be provided. They developed tools that contributed to formulation of policies regarding privacy, security, access and dissemination of information.

Information visualization:

Information visualization is the way in which data is interpreted and communicated through visual interfaces. By creation of algorithms, scientists can decipher patterns in abstract data. Till date, there have been few unsolved questions in information visualization. These include – usability, cognitive perception, knowledge, education, aesthetics and scalability. Understanding cognitive needs when browsing & searching for information is own of the main challenges. There needs to be more usability studies on new visualization methods. Also, quality measures need to evaluate new visualization approaches.

The definition of information is vague and ambiguous. It could be defined as a process, knowledge or thing (Buckland 1991).  Information science draws on a number of other disciplines to investigate the questions of the form, structure, and organization of information and the social impacts of information technologies (Bates, 1999). Advantageously, information science takes into account complexities of human behavior, intelligence and knowledge. In our day to day lives we often depend upon information that has already been documented. Hence, we know that there are different fields that come together to provide us this information. However as a result of “information explosion” there is need for more interdisciplinary efforts. There is no single, proper way of addressing information challenges. There needs to be a development of better technological and informational infrastructures that impart greater and better information irrespective of the social, cultural and economic impact.

The type of problem the field of information science addresses is in essence the issue of how information will be accessed. While there are  a wide range of options available to people, scholars in particular, when it comes to seeking information, information science deals with the specifics of how the information is sought and exchanged and why it’s sought and exchanged. Bates perspective on information science supports this argument and it is compatible with Borko’s (1968) historic definition of the field. Just as Bates identifies information science as the study of the gathering, organizing, storing, retrieving, and dissemination of information, the author notes this definition does not vary too far from Borko’s (1968) historic, over 30 year old, interpretation of information science, which he states is the “discipline that investigates the properties and behavior of information, the forces governing the flow of information, and the means of processing information for optimum accessibility and usability”(Borko, 1968, p. 3). Borko (1968) goes on to point out that information science focuses on the body of knowledge most related to the gathering, interpretation storage, retrieval, organization, transformation, utilization, and transmission of information. Information science a pure science component to it, which Borko (1968) notes inquires into the sciences without substantial focus on its application. Borko (1968) also notes information sciences  and an applied science component, which develops services and products (Borko, 1968, p. 3). Borko’s (1968) pivotal work “Information Science: What is it?,” he specifically defines the epistemology as interdisciplinary, stating that, “information science is an interdisciplinary science that investigates the properties and behavior of information, the forces that govern the flow and use of information, and the techniques, both manual and mechanical, of processing information for optimal storage, retrieval, and dissemination”(Borko, 1968, p.5). Ultimately, information science is an interdisciplinary field.

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