Anthropologies of Art in Islam, Research Paper Example

Introduction

Islamic art is considered to be unique and deeply rooted in religious beliefs, as well as culture. The below research essay will attempt to reveal some of the main traits of Islamic Art, its cultural and anthropological foundations. The author of the current study is looking to examine the following research question: “What cultural and religious beliefs make Islamic art unique, deep, and philosophical?” The main assumptions of the current essay are that the diverse nature of Islamic art is influenced by the unique culture of the Arabic world, traditions, and the lifestyle of people living in the region, therefore, it does have an anthropological feature that should not be neglected when studying the individual works of artists.

Problem Statement

A recent publication by the Leighton House Museum (1) states that the term “Islamic Art” itself is unclear and misleading. Often used to describe art that is created in countries where Islam is the main religion, it does not cover cultural elements of the region that are not related to faith. The authors (Leighton House Museum) state that indeed only a small proportion of Islamic art is of religious nature, therefore, researchers should not neglect the anthropological and cultural elements of the region when examining individual artifacts. Therefore, the author of the current study would like to focus on the social and cultural conditions in the Islamic world, instead of only examining the religious aspects of artifacts. Saeed (227) also confirms that Islamic art “is a combination of different civilizations and historical circumstances as painted with Islamic weltanschauung”. Therefore, Islamic art should not be examined from only one perspective, but a multidisciplinary approach is needed. While Islamic art has a spiritual message, it is not simply based on the representation of the “Supreme Creator”, but the traditions, history, and beliefs of Arabic people as well (Saeed, 228). Therefore, the author of the current study would like to adopt Shaw’s definition of Islamic art, which states that it is “art from societies dominated by Islam”, however, not to be viewed as a single-dimensional, secular art.

Historical Background of the Development of Islamic Art

According to the review of the Leighton House Museum about Islamic art history, the artistic representation of the society and beliefs throughout the centuries has been influenced by other, non-Islamic cultures. As an example, the Byzantine mosaic work was adapted by Islamic artists and brought to a new level, making it more decorative and powerful. The influence of the Persian and Roman Empires, as well as the Chinese traditions of pottery are also mentioned by the review. However, it is also stated that around the 9^th Century, Islamic art became more symbolic, with motifs starting to clearly represent heaven and divinity (Leighton House Museum, 3).

Necipo?lu (14)  created a new method of periodization for Islamic Art, and it is based on flexible geographical and chronological zones. The fist zone is defined as the one between 650 and 1050 AD, when the artistic world of the Islam was born. The second time zone is defined between 1050 and 1450 AD, set for the expansion of Islam to India and the Balkans. The next period, between 1450 and 1800 is defined as the early modern era, when the conquest of the Ottoman Empire in Constantinople happened, followed by the appearance of courts and Mughals who supported and influenced art at the same time. The last, modern period of Islamic art started at 1800 AD, when Islamic states gained their unique characteristics and identity. The above timeline of the development of Islamic art is extremely useful for the current research in understanding the milestones of cultural and social changes taking place in the Islamic world. However, other aspects of artistic development, such as social norms and cultural interchanges need to be examined further.

Literature Review

According to Necipo?lu (2), before the 1970-s, the main question of researchers was “What is Islamic about Islamic Art?”. Today, however, the focus of cultural anthropologists and art experts has shifted towards analyzing images, symbols, and their power related to the cultural beliefs of the Islamic world.

As Shaw (2012) states, the main issue with interpreting Islamic art today is that it is the “reduction of culture to religion”. However, the author also mentions that several scholars tend to look at “Islamic art” as a homogenous term, instead of a diverse form of art that is determined not only by the religion and beliefs, but the national values of the society. One of the main problems with interpreting Islam2 art today, according to Shaw (2011) is to “rehumanize Islam” after the attacks of 9/11”. The previously mentioned bias, negative stereotypes, and misconceptions about Islam have potentially only strengthened since the terrorist attacks.

The Main Features of Islamic Art

According to the overview of the Leighton House Museum (1), there are certain characteristics of Islamic art, rooted in culture and society, independent of geographical location. These are: the high level of pattern utilization (flower and geometric), decoration as a part of the art, calligraphic features (love of the written word and their power), sophisticated tile work within buildings, and the lack of sculptures. These characteristics will be examined in detail below, reviewing some of the most representative examples of Islamic art throughout the history.

The term  “Islamic” to describe culture and art only emerged in the 19^th Century, when the first exhibitions of the artifacts from the Ottoman Empire were opened worldwide. The interest of the Orient, however, emerged in Europe earlier, and Shaw notes that the translation of the “A Thousand and One Nights” was the point when Western cultures started to show interest in the diverse culture of the East, with harems, bazaars, and treasures. The misconceptions of the Arabic, Oriental, or Islamic world, however, resulted in some stereotypes that are still present in the West. As Necipo?lu (8)  confirms, there is a presence of “traditional bias of focusing on the early centuries of Islam”, and misconceptions assuming that “Islamic art is predominantly decorative” (Necipo?lu, 9).

There is currently a debate among experts in the field on whether or not the decorative motifs mentioned above have a meaning in Islamic art. Indeed, one would need to study Islamic culture and traditions, as well as Islam itself in order to understand what carefully created patterns and fully symmetrical motifs represent in Islamic art. The publication of the Leighton House Museum (5) concludes that the perfect symmetry of the motifs is a representation of the “oneness” that lies in the religion, while they have no meaning for those who are not Muslims. This simple explanation seems to be easy to accept, however, needs to be tested further.

One of the most prevalent features of Islamic art is that the depiction of humans or animals is considered as idolatry, and is forbidden. This means that the artistic development of the Islamic culture has taken a route towards a deeper symbolism. Without the ability to directly represent people, animals, and actions, it is likely that the geometric patterns and motifs have taken on the role of delivering the image’s deeper meaning. That line of thought can be interesting when examining the truth behind the “meaninglessness” of decorative features in Islamic art.

The Anthropological Meaning of Islam

Saeed (228) summarizes some of the potential meanings of Islamic art, such as “God is Beautiful and likes Beauty”. The author also states that Islamic art is not a product of a religion, but a product of a civilization which has its values and belief systems grounded in Islam. It is important to note the difference between the two definitions in order to fully understand the meaning of Islamic art. Further, Saeed (228) states that   – while Islam is a belief system – it also influences multiple aspects of people’s lives, such as politics, social order, values, family relations, science, and ethics. Therefore, Islamic art is  – in a way – the representation of people’s lives who adapted to the cultural and belief systems of Islam and the Arabic traditions. As Saeed (229) explains: “Muslim artists tried (and still try) to create every art-form by invoking in them the Power and Blessing of the Supreme Reality”. While the Prophet Muhammad is not represented in paintings, another form of art (calligraphy and poetry) make up for this lack of presence. Calligraphy – while present in China and Japan – has developed into a unique form of art in the Muslim world. As Saeed (229) describes the development of Islamic calligraphy: “Arabic script ceases to be merely the script but becomes „Islamic calligraphy? embellished by trained and creative artist-scribes”. The motivation of the artist-scribes here is clear: to create a suitable form for Allah’s word, representing the universal truth of Islam. It is, therefore, possible that through this decorative writing, the artists are representing the “sacred nature” of the Qur’an. The same statement might be true for various forms of art, considering that Islam believes that everything on Earth is Allah’s divine creation. Therefore, to capture the perfect divinity and complete nature of the world around us, the artists create symmetry and use decorative features, such as geometrical forms and floral motifs carefully arranged, in order to represent the sacred nature of life. With that in mind, it is clear that decorative features, patterns, and motifs do have a symbolic meaning in Islamic art, however, this meaning is more complex and less direct than we are used to in Western civilization.

The fact that – according to Saeed (230) –  “The Holy Qur“an (The Word of Allah) is the source of every art-form according to Muslim artists and aestheticians” seems to confirm that every form of art is designed to depict the creation of God, instead of Allah himself.

An analysis of Islamic art would not be complete without taking a close look at architectural traditions. According to Saeed (231), there are eight main traditions: Arab, Iranian, Turkish, Indian, Pakistani, West African, East African, Indonesian, and Chinese. While the main features and structural rules are the same, the national heritage and customs formed each tradition to be unique. Ali (2) concludes this diversity within one religion as “unity within diversity”.

What Makes Islamic Art Unique

There are several features of Islamic art that make it outstanding and unique at the same time. The sacred power of the words has already been discussed, and while there are some examples found in Christian and Eastern traditions of decorating texts and using calligraphy to make sacred texts appear more precious, Islamic calligraphy is supposed to be the only form of art that is able to describe the Divine in a perfect way. While in Christianity and Eastern religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism the sculpture of gods and saints is allowed and commonly used by artists, this form of art is non-existent in Islamic cultures. The imagery representation of the divine perfection does not exist in visual arts, only in a symbolic way. It is, however, replaced by calligraphic sacred texts.

In architecture, it is evident that there are several diverse forms of Islamic art, and the main feature, according to Princess Ali (2) is symmetry, with the expansion of the sacred space to the outside of the building. The most important distinctive feature of Mosque building in the Islamic world is described by Princess Ali (3) as follows: “The whole geometry of the building’s construction creates a visually magnetic shell for something sacred, but avoids clarifying the liturgical usage and in this respect, it disconnects itself from the whole liturgical tradition of Christian churches and baptistries. The linguistic and social traditions of countries influenced by Islam are indeed collective, therefore, they do not focus on individual experiences, but collective shared values and events.

The question of decorative features in artifacts, wall paintings, and buildings are thought to mean nothing for non-Muslims, however, they often simply symbolize the divine perfection, and nothing else. The decorative glass mosaics of some of the largest Mosques, for example have three different messages, according to Princess Ali (10).

The deeply rooted symbolic nature of the culture, the lack of direct representation and the belief that objects deliver power for their owners are the most unique characteristics of Islamic art. Grabar (26) describes Islamic architecture as deeply mystical. According to the author, the signs and symbols known and shared by communities influenced by Islam are transformed into building forms, structures, and patterns.

Analysis of Artifacts

The figural representation of the divine perfection in a symbolic way is clearly visible in some of the decorative art pieces found in the collections of international museums. The Minbar from Egypt in the Victoria and Albert Museum (15^th Century), described by the Leighton House Museum’s report features complex geometric patterns, with attention to small details. Likewise, the painted woodwork of the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca (Princess Ali, 12) shows the same attention to details, and geometrical patterns that are often complex and sophisticated. Symmetry is clearly visible in both artifacts. A reconstructed stucco wall from the Kaiser Friedrich Museum (Necipo?lu, 19) also have similar geometrical features, as well as a symmetrical structure. Painted walls with the combination of characteristic contrasting colors are also common in Islamic art. The Metropolitan Museum’s collection of calligraphy artifacts from the Islam culture clearly show that writing in Islam was taken to a new level: a form of art. Everyday objects were provided with secular power and divine qualities through calligraphy, such as bowls in the Metropolitan Museum’s collection. However, reflecting to an argument made earlier within this essay, it is evident that calligraphy within the Islam world did not only have religious purpose. The collection of calligraphic images and decorations show that the writings often provided the owners with the reinforcement of wealth and social status, as well as their personal qualities. As the Metropolitan Museum’s review of these types of artifacts (Blair, 8) confirms, textiles (Tiraz) were decorated with calligraphic inscriptions, as well as everyday objects provided for powerful individuals as gifts. The authors (Blair, 8) confirm that “it is certain that tiraz served to celebrate and reinforce the power and authority of the ruler and his court”. Therefore, the social and political importance of Islamic art should not be neglected.

Calligraphies are not only used in Mosques to deliver the message of Allah, but also on images. One particular example for this decorative feature that adds to the value of the art piece is the image of the Calligraphic Galleon from the 108^h century, found in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum. The devotional power of the text combined with the image is both symbolic and taken for granted. The symbolic meaning of the image, however, lies in the sacred text of the Qur’an about the Seven Sleepers. Indeed, the image tells a story, a moral tale, and depicts human emotions, ethical dilemmas, and has a symbolic value. As the authors (Blair, 72) state, “the image of the ship also carries symbolic meaning. In illustrated manuscripts and written sources, the Islamic faith is sometimes represented as a ship in a stormy sea”.  According to the legend, if the names of the Ephesus Seven Sleepers were inscribed on a ship, it was protected, and would not sink.

Conclusion

Based on the above review of Islamic art, it is evident that it should not be examined as a homogenous style, but a style that is influenced by different societies’ and communities’ beliefs that embraced Islamic values. While the development of Islamic art was influenced by religious rules, such as the prohibition of imagery representation of living creatures, this does not mean that it does not have a meaning. What previous scholars simply viewed as decorative features of symmetrical floral and geometrical patterns are designed to represent the perfection of the divine world. By creating perfect buildings, the artists are able to connect the imperfect human world with the Paradise. The art of Islam could not be understood without looking at the belief systems of the communities living in the area, and the traditions surrounding the development of the religion. As the society in Islam is hierarchical and power-oriented, still collectivist, sharing the beauty and power to get closer to the divine truth is likely to be one of the main motivations of artists. The presence of calligraphic inscriptions on buildings, paintings, and pictures, however, suggest that the greatest truth in Islamic culture is believed to be the Holy Quadrant, and any other form of representation of the divine is inferior. This is the reason why the power of words has an increased importance in Islamic art, and texts (religious or not) accompanying images are believed to have a symbolic and mystical power.

Works Cited

Ali, HRH Princess Wijdan. “Islamic Art As A Means Of Cultural Exchange.” (2006).

Blair, Sheila S. Islamic calligraphy. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006. Metropolitan Museum.

Grabar, Oleg. “Symbols and signs in Islamic architecture.” Architecture as Symbol and Self-Identity (1980): 1-11.

Leighton House Museum. “Leighton and the Middle East website: Leighton and Collecting Art. 2007. Web.

Necipoglu, Gülru. “The Concept of Islamic Art: Inherited Discourses and New Approaches*.” Journal of Art Historiography 6 (2012): 1.

Saeed, Khawaja Muhammad. “Islamic Art and Its Spiritual Message.”

Shaw, Wendy MK. “The Islam in Islamic Art History: Secularism and Public Discourse.” Journal of Art Historiography 6 (2012): 1.