Cognitive Learning Theory and Its Application in Different Environments, Research Paper Example

Introduction

Cognitive processes are peculiar to a human being in all periods of life. Both young and adult people engage in such complex mental processes as decision-making, problem-solving, attention, remembering, language production and understanding, etc. Unconsciously, people involve cognitive processes in performing certain activities in educational establishments, at the workplace, and other fields. The present paper is dedicated to one of the major learning theories, the cognitive learning theory (CLT). The thesis statement of the work is that a cognitive approach proves its effectiveness in all learning environments. The aim of the paper is to give an in-depth understanding of this theory, to reveal the contributions of its major theorists, and to demonstrate how CLT can be applied to three different learning environments (education, business, and medicine). The value of this paper cannot be underestimated, since it provides a solid theoretical and practical basis for CLT.

Cognitive Learning Theory and Contribution of its Major Theorists

The roots of CLT can be found in the cognitive science that emerged in the middle of the previous century. According to Miller (2003), the cognitive revolution was a response to the notable influence of behaviorism on learning theories. In this context, CLT became “the product of a time when psychology, anthropology and linguistics were redefining themselves and computer science and neuroscience as disciplines were coming into existence” (Miller, 2003, p. 141). Since the examination of human mental processes was a prerogative of neurophysiology and other scientific medical branches, psychology was the first sphere that gave a clear explanation of cognitivism. This way, CLT based on the interdisciplinary impacts of different sciences (psychology, philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, neurosciences, and computer science) emerged.

The psychologists of that time recognized a significant role of human brain’s capacities in the child’s and adult learning. In the middle 1950s, it was obvious that behaviorism could not provide answers for questions related to language acquisition and learning processes. Such major theorists as Jerry Bruner, Jean Piaget, and Lev Vygotsky opened the era of cognitivism in the learning sphere (Miller, 2003). According to all these psychologists, the cognitive view of learning supposes individual experience and perception. In addition, learning cognitivism suggests that the socio-cultural environment shapes the learner’s motivation and cognition (in science, cognition refers to human mental processes in various disciplines) (Li, Hung, & Chang, 2010). However, before the paper proceeds to the discussion of contributions to CLT, one should know what cognitivism is, and in what aspects it differs from other learning theories.

Nagowah and Nagowah (2009) mentioned that behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism are three dominant theories of learning. The authors revealed the essence of each of them, and analyzed their strengths and weaknesses. Although all three learning theories suppose that a learner, an instructor, and a particular problem are included into the basic framework of any learning process, they are different in their nature. Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that disregards mental activities and focuses on observable behaviors; according to behaviorism, a learner is passive, while a teacher is active (Nagowah & Nagowah, 2009). According to constructivism, a learner constructs knowledge in the mind on the basis of his or her personal experience; constructivism presupposes that a learner is active, while a teacher performs the role of a facilitator (Nagowah & Nagowah, 2009).

However, cognitivism stands between the mentioned learning theories. According to Nagowah and Nagowah (2009), “cognitive psychologists use observable behaviors as an indication for deducing what is going on in a person’s mind” (p. 280). Cognitive psychologists believe that the role of a learner is active and creative in the learning process. Hence, for cognitivism, active mental processing (namely, information processing) is essential for successful learning. Cognitivists suppose that neurological connections, memory, and organization are the aspects involved in this processing. Although cognitivism differs from behaviorism, both behaviorists and cognitivists think that knowledge is “given and absolute” (Nagowah & Nagowah, 2009, p. 280). At the same time, adherents of CLT focus their attention on the internal mental processes during learning. However, the theorists of cognitivism identified the strengths and weaknesses of a cognitive approach to learning. The main strength can be found in situations where learners should be trained to accomplish a task the same way on a number of occasions. The main weakness thereof is that a learner knows only one way to accomplish a specific task, but this may be inappropriate in cases of other tasks (Nagowah & Nagowah, 2009).

Lefrancois (2011) believed that Bruner, Piaget, and Vygotsky were the three significant cognitive psychologists and theorists that made a valuable contribution to CLT. For example, Bruner paid special attention to cognitivism in educational psychology. This American psychologist compared child’s development to the evolution of a human race. For Bruner, in the process of learning that supposes active engagement of complex mental processes in performance of activities, a child’s brain and mind evolve, and a learner gains intelligence; hence, learning is a synonym to evolution for Bruner. According to the psychologist, language acquisition is the outcome of cultural evolution. In general, the theorist expanded the understanding of cognitivism, and took active part in the development of CLT (Lefrancois, 2011).

Bruner’s theory of representation is one of his major contributions to the field of CLT. Bruner argued that perception and learning are information-processing activities that reflect people’s need to simplify and make sense out of the world. Putting things in categories (equated to rules that assist in learning), in other words, categorization, is a means of simplification that helps to form concepts. Bruner thought that characteristics of objects are their attributes that help a learner to refer one or another object to different categories or criteria (Lefrancois, 2011). Bruner underlined that “learners tend to formulate a hypothesis about the rule underlying a particular concept” (Nagowah & Nagowah, 2009, p. 280). These rules can be easily expressed in the “if-then form”; for example, a learner knows that if an animal has four legs, barks, and brings a stick, then it is a dog. In general, Bruner’s theory of representation implies that each learner has a coding system in mind; this system represents hypothetical groupings of related categories (Nagowah & Nagowah, 2009).

Lefrancois (2011) stated that Piaget founded a developmental-cognitive aspect of the cognitivism. His developmental-cognitive theory reflected the concern about human mental representation; besides, this theory reveals how children achieve an in-depth understanding of their environment and of themselves. Miller (2003) believed that Piaget’s insights into a child’s mind were undoubtedly influential, and inspired the followers. Probably, the major contribution of this psychologist into CLT lies in the ideas revealed below.

Piaget argued that human development is a process of adaptation through cognition (knowing). A child develops in the process of learning, since cognitive processes are actively involved. Assimilation (when a child uses previous learning) and accommodation (when a child makes new responses) are crucial concepts in Piaget’s theory. In a play, objects and situations are assimilated to the activities; hence, a child easily may use a chair as a horse, because this chair is assimilated to the active “horse-riding schema” (Lefrancois, 2011). Child’s imitation is expressed in accommodation. In order to imitate others’ behavior, a child needs to be internalized; internalization is the process of mental concepts’ formation. Hence, an activity comes first, and then comes its mental representation. For Piaget, “internalization is the basis of cognitive learning” (Lefrancois, 2011, p. 210). In general, the psychologist believed that a person’s intelligence is an adaptation to the environment through assimilation and accommodation. According to Piaget, new learning that represents changes in cognitive structure is reflected in any person’s behavior (Lefrancois, 2011).

Vygotsky was another influential figure in the development of CLT; besides, he was the founder of cultural-historical psychology. He made a valuable contribution to the cognitive approach to learning. Vygotsky stressed the importance of culture and its invention, language, in the learning process. Culture and language engage a person in complex mental processes. A child progresses through the following stages of language learning: social speech (controls behaviors of others), egocentric speech (is often spoken loud, but directs one’s own behavior), and inner speech (“stream-of consciousness self-talk”) (Lefrancois, 2011, p. 232). As one may see, although Bruner, Piaget, and Vygotsky took different positions in a cognitive approach to learning, all three mentioned theorists contributed to the development and understanding of CLT.

Application of Cognitive Learning Theory in Education

CLT can be successfully implemented in the sphere of education. Numerous educational establishments apply the cognitive approach to the teaching-learning process. Multiple research evidence indicates that CLT effectively works in such educational establishments as school. Applying this theory of learning, a teacher makes learners to use their experience in acquisition of new critical skills.

Ojose (2008) demonstrated how Piaget’s theory of cognitive development can be applied in mathematics instruction. The author revealed how Piaget’s stages of cognitive development can be realized in the context of mathematics instruction and teaching-learning process. At the sensorimotor stage (from birth to age 2), children explore the world through movements, senses, and reflexes (Lefrancois, 2011). To enhance children’s mathematical capability, one should give them an opportunity to act in the unrestricted but safe environment; in this period, children are able to understand certain concepts of counting and numbers. For example, a child can be asked to count fingers, candies, or toys; another way to develop mathematical capabilities is to show pictures (pictorial illustrations) of objects and their corresponding numbers simultaneously (Ojose, 2008). At the preoperational stage (from ages 2 to 7), a child acquires motor skills and practices magical thinking; however, a child lacks rational and logical thinking (Lefrancois, 2011). Teaching children at this stage should include effective questioning about an object’s characteristics. For example, a child can be asked to group geometric shapes according to similar characteristics (Ojose, 2008).

At the concrete operations stage (from ages 7 to 11), a child begins to think logically with the help of practical aids (Lefrancois, 2011). As Ojose (2008) stated, “hands-on experiences and multiple ways of representing a mathematical solution can be ways of fostering the development of this cognitive stage” (p. 27). Hand-on activities help to make abstract ideas concrete; hence, mathematical ideas and concepts become children’s tools for problem-solving. For example, a child can be asked to use manipulative materials (pattern blocks, dice, algebra cubes, etc.) in order to explore arithmetical operations (Ojose, 2008). At the formal operational stage (from ages 11 to 16), a learner develops abstract reasoning and uses logical thinking (Lefrancois, 2011). Since a learner uses reasoning skills and can make logical arguments through clarification, interference, evaluation, and application, he or she can be asked to solve a mathematical problem or an equation (Ojose, 2008). As one may see, Ojose (2008) suggested that a cognitive-developmental approach in education is effective, since it responds to the person’s real intellectual abilities and needs.

Application of a Cognitive Learning Theory in Business

Lichtenstein and Lumpkin (2008) proved the effectiveness of CLT application in the business sphere. For them, cognitive learning is the essential part of entrepreneurial education. According to the authors, entrepreneurs need to learn the basics of accounting and other aspects of business, and to understand such essential concepts as risk. In the context of a business company, correct application of cognitive learning may help to “transform data into information, and information into knowledge, which can then be leveraged to generate organizational knowledge” and wisdom (Lichtenstein & Lumpkin, 2008, p. 98). In their turn, organizational knowledge and wisdom may transform into strategic assets. The business perspective of CLT application suggests that cognitive learning adds unique assets to the organization that, in their turn, become its competitive advantage (Lichtenstein & Lumpkin, 2008).

In the business environment, application of CLT is usually connected with the implementation of an effective business strategy. For example, the Starbucks corporation is a bright example of the effectiveness of cognitive learning in a business organization. The main purpose of the company was to reframe the coffee industry as a social American experience by providing customers with affordable luxury. The company’s founder imported the knowledge from the Italian coffee industry, and developed a new framework for entrepreneurial action based on several strategic assets gained through cognitive learning. Rethinking of the aspects of the stores was one of the crucial assets that lead to customers’ high motivation through their “high-touch” personalized experience (Lichtenstein & Lumpkin, 2008, p. 99). As one may see, a cognitive approach to organizational learning is effective because it adds strategic assets to a business company.

Application of the Cognitive Learning Theory in Medicine (Psychotherapy)

Medicine is another sphere where the cognitive approach to learning proves its effectiveness. According to Leahy and Dowd (2002), cognitive psychotherapy presents one of the possible applications of CLT in the field of medicine. One may see that cognitive psychotherapy aims to help a patient to overcome difficulties by identifying and changing dysfunctional emotional responses, thinking, and behavior (Leahy & Dowd, 2002).

A cognitive approach to psychotherapy helps patients to develop skills for identifying distorted thinking, modifying beliefs, changing behaviors, and relating to others in different ways (Leahy & Dowd, 2002). Treatment supposes testing beliefs and collaboration between a therapist and a patient. Depressed people (affected by, for example, a loss of a parent, divorce, bullying, etc.) are frequent patients of therapists; in this case, the therapist’s main goal is to replace a patient’s negative schema by a positive one. During cognitive psychotherapy, a patient and a therapist identify a problem and make efforts aimed to solve it, and manage the patient’s dysfunction together. The therapist addresses the way a client thinks and behaves in response to the same situations, and develops the patient’s ability to search for more flexible ways to think and respond by reducing avoidance of activities. As a result, a patient escapes negative thought patterns and other dysfunctions (Leahy & Dowd, 2002). This way, cognitive learning is effective in psychotherapy because it opens a great opportunity to change people’s negative schemata and dysfunctions.

Conclusions

Summarizing all information stated above, one can conclude that cognitivism in learning suggests that learners acquire new pieces of knowledge, and change personal beliefs only if they are actively involved in activities, and use their own experience (and perceptions) in problem-solving and decision-making processes. To apply the cognitive approach in different spheres (such as education, business, and medicine), one should take human developmental peculiarities of cognition and the influence of cultural-social environment into consideration. If CLT is applied correctly, a person will acquire necessary skills, expand his or her knowledge base, and change behaviors to meet personal and environmental needs (whether it is a workplace or an educational establishment).

References

Leahy, R. L., & Dowd, E. T. (2002). Clinical Advances in Cognitive Psychotherapy: Theory and Application. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.

Lefrancois, G. R. (2011). Theories of Human Learning: What the Professor Said. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

Li, N., Hung, K.-h., & Chang, C.-H. (2010). A cognitive-situative approach to understand motivation: Implications to technology-supported education. US-China Education Review, 7(5), 26-33.

Lichtenstein, B. B., & Lumpkin, G. T. (2008). The role of organizational learning in the opportunity recognition process. In Harrison R. T. & C. M. Leitch (Ed.), Entrepreneurial Learning: Conceptual Frameworks and Applications (pp. 93-119). Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

Miller, G. A. (2003). The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective. Eslevier, 7(3), 141-144.

Nagowah, L., & Nagowah, S. (2009). A reflection on the dominant learning theories: behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. The International Journal of Learning, 16 (2), 270-285.

Ojose, B. (2008). Applying Piaget’s theory of cognitive development to mathematics instruction. The Mathematics Educator, 18(1), 26-30.