Ideas of Kuhn and Dawkins Applied to Kozol’s Paradigm of Funding Education, Research Paper Example

Introduction

There have been many theories of evolution in the world and the ways in which people look at the world surrounding them. It goes without saying that our perception changes together with the changes that occur in the scientific thought and scientific achievements – they reveal the new sides of the world in which we exist and help us acquire an innovated understanding of what is happening around us. We evolve in our thinking together with the evolution of objects that surround us, that help us in our daily life; we can surely say that technological advancement of our lives is constantly accompanied by our oral, psychological and perceptional advancement.

If one imagined a meeting of a modern scientist with a scientist who lived about several centuries ago, it is hard to imagine that they would understand each other; it is impossible from the point of view of evolution and improvement, enrichment that human minds undergo with each successive generation. This is why the scientific paradigm concept acquired such key importance when studying the psychological evolution and all processes and events that accompany it. As soon as a new paradigm emerges, there is no place for the old one any more; it has proven its inconsistency and out-datedness and it should be eliminated to free the way for a new one, corresponding to the renewed world view.

Sometimes concepts are substituted partially because they appear not fully incompatible with the new paradigm; sometimes the new model of thinking fully substitutes the old one. However, it is always necessary to remember that this process does not take place in a steady, quick and peaceful way – there is always an attempt of followers of the old paradigm to prove its only consistency, and there is much effort, sufferings and struggle, as well as indisputable evidence of its incorrectness, to prove that the time of the former paradigm has passed. It is enough to recollect the sacrifice of Copernicus who died in the fire to prove that the Earth was round and rotated around the Sun. Despite the widely spread opinion that everything was vice versa, and the Earth was flat, the objective truth could not be changed and soon it was discovered. Thus, many researchers have dedicated their effort to find out how the change in the world view takes place, what its driving forces are and how the state of the collective human mind changes with the innovation in the world thought takes place. The present paper is dedicated to the studies of Thomas Kuhn about the scientific revolutions, Richard Dawkins with his memetic theory of intellectual evolution, their critical evaluation and comparison as well as practical assessment of their credibility when applied to the theory of Jonathan Kozol in his fight for funding education and eliminating segregation in American schools. The present work tends to show how these theories can be applied to practical issues and which one is more beneficial for solving everyday burning issues in the human thinking that the humanity faces nowadays.

Kuhn’s Paradigm Concept

Kuhn was a philosopher who worked in the spheres of scientific knowledge and the process of its evolution. He conducted his research in the field of scientific change and enrichment, and his effort was directed at the very process of scientific discovery and innovation. Thomas Kuhn was interested in how any science is altered and how shocking discoveries appearing the turning point for it are perceived and treated further on within the structure of a science. It was of particular interest for Kuhn of how the structure of the science changes and what place a new discovery, a new fact that contradicts previous assumptions takes in the renewed understanding of the world view.

The most revolutionary finding of Kuhn was that the scientists working in a particular field of knowledge are initially not directed at the change and discovery because a revolution is not their aim – they want to support the point of view to which they are accustomed and simply want to find as many supportive evidence for it as possible (Thomas Kuhn, n.d.). In his famous work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions he states that:

“The man who is striving to solve a problem defined by existing knowledge and technique is not just looking around. He knows what he wants to achieve, and he designs his instruments and directs his thoughts accordingly” (Kuhn, 1962, p. 95).

Kuhn was the first to coin the term ‘paradigm’ and assumed that it was a collection of all beliefs shared by a certain group of scientists and a set of procedures that allow them conduct their research, i.e., the tools and procedures that they use to solve problems related to their field of study (Thomas Kuhn, n.d.). As soon as the new paradigm claims its rights for existence because of too many contradictions found in the assumed theory and the newly found facts, the paradigm war begins and the reconstruction of the fixed paradigm takes place:

“New assumptions –”paradigms” – require the reconstruction of prior assumptions and the re-evaluation of prior facts. This is difficult and time consuming. It is also strongly resisted by the established community” (Pajares, 2004).

This thought is supported by the idea of Kuhn expressed in his book that eliminates the peaceful co-existence of two paradigms, the new and the old one, because of their incompatibility: “the normal-scientific tradition that emerges from a scientific revolution is not only incompatible but actually incommensurable with that which has gone before” (Kuhn, 1962, p. 102).

Dawkins’ Theory of Genes and Memes and Their Role in Evolution

Richard Dawkins worked on the same problem as Thomas Kuhn did, but he viewed the problem of evolution from another angle – he united much from the biological gene replication theory as a basis for evolution, and added much from the Darwinian theory of natural selection. He stated that only the best, the most fitting genes that comply with the maximum of needs of the modern species in which they replicate can survive in the course of the evolution.

However, it was not the most outstanding work done by Dawkins – he went beyond the measures of biological evolution of genes and invented a revolutionary concept of ‘memes’. Dawkins included his initial assumption that only human beings possess such a unique inherent quality as culture – the joint experience, artistic work and perception of knowledge, art and other spiritual criteria that were passed on historically and enriched the cumulative knowledge of the humanity. A meme in his understanding was a cultural gene, an idea that also duplicated itself in the minds of human beings. He imagined the process of ‘memetic’ replication as similar to the genetic one, but still recognized the difference in these processes, paying tribute the substantially different structure and essence of the notions:

“Just as genes propagate themselves in the gene pool be leaping from body to body via sperms or eggs, so memes propagate themselves in the meme pool by leaping from brain to brain via a process which, in the broad sense, can be called imitation” (Dawkins, 2006, p. 192).

What is also important in the theory of memes, Dawkins assumes that it is hard to state what the minimal element of a single meme is – genes are more palpable because of their physical nature in comparison with memes that constitute an idea, a theory that can hardly be measured. Thus, it was agreed to stipulate the measure of one meme as an complete idea or assumption, be it the whole music work or a single fact (Dawkins, 2006).

The present process described and investigated by Dawkins in detail is stated to take place with the modern sciences from the very beginning of their existence. When certain thoughts are passed from one researcher to another one, they seem to infect his mind, be altered and intermingled with his previously acquired knowledge, and be further on transmitted to another mind in a mutational way. This process does not have a negative connotation – it only assumes that no meme can remain unaltered in other people’s minds as it evolves and mutates, getting connected and blended with other elements of joint knowledge and changing its existence from one form to another. Dawkins observes this process on the history of development of humanities: stating that there has been little changed from the period of Antiquity, and then the major changes were brought in the period of Renaissance, he shows how much has been done with the knowledge acquired during two significant periods of the human history.

Kozol’s Idea of Funding Education

The problem that will be critically analyzed in the present paper is the call for a change of attitude to funding education voiced by Jonathan Kozol who is an active defender of the rights of poor children and who has been fighting for the practical but not only theoretical elimination of segregation between black and white pupils in the modern US schools. The work of his that will become the subject of the present research is Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools. The main issue raised in the book is the astounding observation of the high level of segregation he witnessed in 30 schools of the USA – Kozol observed the conditions in schools for the poor, noted how underequipped and understaffed they are. He also noted that those schools are not provided with the basic conveniences such as cold and hot running water and even heating, thus making the conditions for studying impossible and the future of those children obliged to attend such catastrophically neglected schools stolen.

The worst of observations voiced by Kozol is that the officials and the common public do not want to recognize the problem because with the recognition of segregation unconstitutional they have started to believe that it disappeared and cannot be found anywhere. The tragedy is that it is the society and the legislative authorities who create such a situation and allow its existence, still neglecting the needs of schools and permitting schools for only white and for only black to exist. Kozol points out the tremendous gap between the legislative regulations that should be a must for the whole US nation, and the way they are implemented in the daily reality where prestigious and privileged schools rarely admit black children, and shabby, cold schools making pupils exist in insanitary conditions and fumes of dirty streets are 95-99% black (Kozol, 1992).

So, the problem is clear – it is a real discrepancy between theory and practice that exists as a daily reality for the poor community. If the schools are 95-99% black, it is worth thinking on how bad white children whose parents are too poor to afford their studies in white schools feel in the savage, angry and disappointed black community. There are many cases when white pupils become the subject for overall ridicule, mockery and even violence, so the problem touches upon not only the lack of further opportunities for black children, but for the overall future of relations between black and white people based on their hostility and privileges which ones enjoy and others are deprived of. This situation bears many far-reaching consequences that can be eliminated, from the point of view of Kozol, with the help of funding education properly (Kozol, 1992). So, the purpose is to find out whether proper funding can bring the solution to the whole scope of problems raised by Kozol, and what changes it is likely to yield.

Cultural Memes Needed to Be Altered to Achieve Kozol’s Goal

With the proper account of cultural memes given by Dawkins (2006) that have been enlisted above, it becomes necessary to look at the problem of funding education raised by Kozol as a set of cultural memes. All knowledge in the human civilization is a set of memes, so why should one view the present issue in a different way? The problem is not solved for a set of reasons – it is neglect and pretence of local officials who refuse to recognize the issue, the segregation and stereotyping that is deeply rooted in the minds of both the black and the white community causing them to act in a pre-determined way, as well as the lack of understanding of close connection between the educational process and the future career and developmental opportunities for children.

As it comes from the theory of Dawkins, cultural change happens through meme mutation when transportation thereof from one brain to another one. So, what memes should mutate for the problem of underfunded education to be recognized and for a set of efficient techniques for the problem solution to be accepted? The first step is to alter the memes of officials and common public who associate legislation with reality, which is often much different. People think that in case the law was adopted, segregation has disappeared as an unconstitutional notion, and segregation in schools is only the matter of convenience (black parents wanting their kids to study with other black kids, inability to pay for another school and choosing the one in geographical proximity etc.). No matter what explanations they choose to justify segregation, they need to acquire the adequate understanding of why this statistics is dangerous, how the laws are not followed in their particular region and what should be done to make integration possible.

Another meme to be altered is in the minds of both the black and the white community about the deeply-rooted hostility they perceive towards each others. It historically happened so that black people used to be slaves. But the modern reality requires a change in perception, so the meme of inferiority of black people or racism also has to be changed – only in such a way the preferences of rich white parents not to see black children in the schools where their children study can be eliminated, and the integration process may begin. The reason for such a choice is that segregation initially comes from home where parents teach their children (both black and white) that the racial hatred exists no matter what, so the black should remain with the black, and the white should remain with the white.

Perception of education as a granted favor from the government should also be changed. Officials may think that the fact schools are free already frees them from equipping some schools and underfunding others – they treat the problem as a necessary evil in the state that simple cannot fund all spheres equally efficiently. They do not connect the studying conditions in which pupils exist with the outcome of education, and do not recognize the purposelessness of such effort. If the meme of perceiving education in comfortable, fully provided conditions of comfort and harmony that add motivation and instigate curiosity in pupils evolves, then practical effort may be taken to make the school atmosphere in every school correspond to the atmosphere of studying, learning and discovering for every pupil.

Finally, it is essential to change the meme of absence of way out in the minds of the black community in the US. Most poor African American people have been driven to despair with the unequal situation they observe every day being deprived of adequate education, healthcare, insurance and career opportunities; they put up with that state of affairs and teach their children not to hope for the better, not to fight for their rights. This is why there are many cases known about kids who are doomed to criminal lives from the very childhood because they do not see any alternatives an do not believe in their individual efforts that may yield them success and financial stability. As soon as this meme is altered and black people understand that their individual studies, motivation to learn and to grow intellectually and spiritually will help them achieve success and avoid criminal responsibility, they will study more eagerly. The reason for this meme’s importance is that even proper financing and equipment will never help in schools where children have no motivation and no hope for the future, misled by the frightening reality of their lives outside schools.

Kozol’s Funding of Education Problem as a Paradigm

It is possible to say that in case on perceives Kozol’s idea of funding education as a paradigm, it is absolutely possible to state that the present stage of the educational paradigm development is undergoing the process of paradigm wars. The stage of facts discovery has long ago passed – if one follows the theory of Kuhn, researchers try to make sure their paradigm is correct and look for supportive evidence thereof, neglecting the fact of contradictions existing in it. The stage of neglect has been passed with the help of such people as Kozol – they showed that the law making any segregation in education illegal does not work, and proved the necessity for action. While others neglected the facts that contradicted their theory of equal education without any racism, Kozol as an activist seeking justice showed that not all facts complied with the overall normal science called ‘equal education in a democratic state’.

Analyzing Kozol’s paradigm further, it is necessary to note that it will win and take over the former paradigm of seemingly equal education only in case it finds more and more followers who will recognize the crisis of the previous paradigm and its inconsistency. Those may become the followers of the new paradigm who will be not afraid to agree that racism and segregation really exist in the modern United States, and who will design the new educational paradigm being guided by those assumptions, thus taking into consideration not the wish to impose equality in the country where it has actually never existed, but by financial considerations of giving black and white pupils equal opportunities which they will individually handle judging from the point of their individual ambitions and career plans.

Conclusion

Having a look at the educational problem raised by Kozol from the point of view of both evolutional theories, the one of Dawkins and the one of Kuhn, it becomes possible to assume that any science and any notion may be explained from these two points of view – both a revolution and an evolution appears applicable for the notion of funding education. However, if one turns to the factors of credibility of this or that approach, it is more believable that a revolution in education will successfully bring the contemporary problem of underfunding and segregation to a constructive solution. All that poor children need is hope for the better, and it can be given to them as soon as their educational conditions are brought to the harmonious unity with the vision thereof.

Evolution is also necessary in the human minds – it is impossible to achieve the effect of a change if the community to which it pertains does not comprehend it in full and correctly. But the evolution takes a long time to take place, and it also needs inner instigators; so how can these instigators emerge if people perceive the reality of segregation issues in a distorted, wrong way? How will they understand the need for the change of attitude towards poor black communities if they do not see any problem there? Getting full, thoughtful answers to those questions causes only one plausible answer –Kuhn’s method is much more productive to proceed with the change of educational paradigm, and in suchlike issues it finds much more constructiveness and support.

References

Dawkins, R. (2006). The selfish gene (3 ed.). Oxford University Press.

Kozol, J. (1992). Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools. Harper Perennial.

Kuhn, T.S. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press.

Pajares, F. (2004). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions by Thomas S. Kuhn: A Synopsis from the original. Retrieved January 27, 2010, from http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/ kuhnsyn.html

Thomas Kuhn (n.d.). Retrieved January 27, 2010, from http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/ Kuhnsnap.html