Okyeame: A Theoretical Framework, Article Review Example

The Introduction starts with comments on the consequences to social scientists of Dell Hymes’ call for a new discipline of communication. Specific scientists are sourced. Speech-genres, and how political power and the spoken word affect cultural mores and their attendant face-to-face mediations, are considered. Richard Bauman’s theory of verbal art is mentioned, along with the observation that language as performance art is poorly studied.

In Reported Speech, the primacy of “reported speech” is stressed as the commonest “authoritative discourse.” The role of individual model-allegiance v. that of the people as a whole is queried, as well as the conflicting role of parody. The role of the okyeame as a personal actor is described, both in formal (royal) and informal (unembellished) situations. An example of the Mossi of Burkino Fasso is quoted and cited as an example of mediated speech.

In Surrogation, akyeame are confirmed as social mediators. This introduces the key element of surrogation, including surrogate performance and surrogate listening through a proxy. Its use as a social cognate with motherhood, voting, ventriloquism, and puppetry and consequent responsibility-delegation is described. The universality of this phenomenon is asserted, as exampled by client-attorney relationships, press secretaries, etc. Roles of single, multiple, and overlapping voices, and the resultant ambivalence of primary mediation, is queried.

In The Spoken Word, it is stated that societies in various stages of pre-literacy, speech-intermediaries are especially important. The spoken word’s power in reflecting and increasing/decreasing a speakers’ status, is referenced in terms of divinity in general and Judeo-Christian culture specifically. Examples of taboo words are given in the context of Ibo culture along with ancient Hebrew. More recent European terms are also mentioned. Comments about reinforcement, and language as being propositional in a context of social behavior are assayed.

Face-to-Face Behavior posits the role of risk in face-to-face behavior. Being close in both time and space, there is none of the safety found in written speech. Thus the role of politeness is stated as a function of the larger concept called facework. Ritual facework strategies employed to protect social interaction is detailed, including the use of herbs and prayers. Facework is stated as being so important that mediated speech is closely associated with royalty.

Reflexes and Scope posits five primary duties in an okyeame’s role, and states that all have in common the use of an agent (a mediary), yet his role is purely metalinguistic. Each is described in detail. The special duties of an African mediary are discussed as well. The world-wide use of the pattern of okyeame-as-intermediary are detailed, with specific tribes mentioned.

Surrogate Speech in Africa focuses on tribal use of mediated speech throughout the continent, with several specific tribes mentioned with emphasis on its use in royal communications. Scholars Michael Appiah and Ruth Finegan are cited and a lengthy quote from one of Finegan’s books provided. The tribal chief Kwame Nkrumah’s employment of an okyeame is described. Mediated speech is stated as triadic, and that further study is needed. Royal Distance states that royal okyeame-mediated speech promotes a flowering of language. Discussion of this tendency brings to mention several African states and tribes. The concept of mediation and concealment is introduced, with emphasis on hiding the face from commoners. Art historian Robert Thompson is quoted at length on the phenomenon. Further comments address the utility of mediation in buffering the wrath or mockery of a king.

Answering in Performance is described as fulfilling a need to reply in a mediated sense to the speaker whose own speech is given through the okyeame. This is given as a critical performance-art, and this kind of mediation is described as institutionalized mediation. Specific tribes are cited, with an extended quotation describing the short and simple mediated replies.