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The Psychosocial Development of Children, Assessment Example

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How Might Welfare Ideologies Influence Welfare Provision for Older People?

The concept of ideology in social science is often misunderstood, contested, and underappreciated. However, it is helpful in the reshaping of the theories that help understand human behaviour when it comes to social welfare (Hornung, Höge, and Unterrainer, 2021). When addressing social welfare, individuals typically take two stances on the debate, collectivistic or individualistic. On the broader view, political ideologies are perceived as the turnaround that helps shape the public policy and the social policy used in addressing the problem within society (Johnston and Ollerenshaw, 2020). The essay will describe the four most common political ideologies: conservatism, liberalism, radicalism, and populism. These ideologies help define individuals’ views based on the core issues surrounding the provision of social welfare. The essay will describe the human nature behind the behaviour depicted, explaining the government’s role and addressing society’s social problems (Rathbun, 2020, p 213). The changes in demography are forcing the country to look for ways in getting welfare resources and, at the same time, determine how well to ration the services they deliver to the older individuals in the society (Hornung, Höge, and Unterrainer, 2021). In addition, countries are adopting the new form of economy and scrapping off the older socialist economy, which was mainly governed by economic and political systems.

Social life has seen developments and changes that consequently influence the changes we see in addressing society’s needs, especially for the old. Therefore, as the requirements in social change and the approach, we take in addressing these needs. For example, the industrial revolution has had significant impacts on the economy with the transition from Socialism to capitalism and has also affected the social structure (Roland, 2020, p 29). Therefore, these changes have affected the social policies and led to the emergence of social welfare to prosper. Accordingly, governments have developed into liberals who are more concerned with the protection of traditional functions and put themselves in a position where it takes the international concern more seriously (Johnston and Ollerenshaw, 2020). The situation puts the state into a burden in solving social provision for the old by increasing social expenses and placing the country into an economic crisis. The government’s criticism comes shortly after adopting the changes in the last quarter of the century to have social and political development.

Individuals taking the individualistic position are often described as taking the left-wing in the political ideology, and the collectivists would be famous for the right-wing role (Hornung, Höge, and Unterrainer, 2021). The individualists favour the government providing social security for its citizens and, therefore, toward social welfare. However, the burden to the movement comes when these individuals would prefer private markets rather than publicly available goods; therefore, the government unable to support the social structure (Wong, 1991, p 19). If the government cannot generate enough income, it is practically impossible to sustain the social systems, thus the ideology’s failure. On the other side of the debate, the collectivists will be in support of institutional welfare. Although many left-wingers are always favouring institutional measures such as grants to support the social structures and pensions to serve them as they age, most countries are adopting this system (Spicker, 2021). Students in the United Kingdom favour subsidies, student loans, and pension privatisation which is perceived as a burden at an older age. Most left-wingers would state that the earning-related pensions and student loans favour the rich in meeting their needs even when their earnings are slashed.

Karl Max developed the doctrine of Marxism which seeks to address the conflicts between the economies. The concept aims to address the scuffle between the capitalists and the working class. The dominant social-economic, and political level, the capitalists, seeks to exploit the working class (Spicker, 2021). The group owns all means of production; therefore, addressing the needs of the working class is impossible. In this ideology, the capitalists believe that the government should scarp off the communist economy and adopt the structure to cut their earnings to save for provisions at an older age. In this ideology, the government is not transparent on its position since it is understood to take an instrument or a system that spells contradictions in society. With the philosophy, social welfare is understood as a system where the working class is resistant to the welfare system as they seek liberalism from the capitalists (Spicker, 2021). When it comes to politics, the theory positions the government with two essential functions: improving the condition for accumulating wealth for the working class and legitimising the capitalist system by introducing radical measures to make people accept the plan.

While Socialism is often confused with Marxism, the two got separated a century ago when the Industrial Revolution took place. As a result, Marxism became a popular form of Socialism. Currently, very few countries still practice socialist’s economies, therefore, supporting the socialist ideology. These countries are referred to as welfare states as they are shying from fully adopting the capitalist economy (Spicker, 2021). The system operates under three core values, liberalism, equality, and fraternity. Through Socialism, the state-owned and operated most production systems within the economy in the Soviet era. In this system, there is more centralisation in managing the provisions of social welfare. The method, therefore, did not provide for the inclusion of private institutions in the state economy. However, the system had flaws in delivering the provisions to the social workers since it mainly depends on the market forces and the revenue collected—an example of a state that still operates with this economy in Algeria. Moreover, the old would most likely be unable to provide for their needs because the system is not reliable (Spicker, 2021).

Finally, the conservatives believe more in the public order, with little attention paid to the importance of inequalities in class. In the ideology, little or no stress is put on the social relationships that define the system in the society. In the beliefs, welfare is a secondary concern, emphasising the conventional values of work, the families for individuals, and the state (Spicker, 2021). The conservatives will only raise the alarm when social order is endangered by social provision and social welfare. That is evident with the saying of a British conservative, “if you do not give the people social reform, they are going to give you a revolution” (Spicker, 2021). Most Christians would therefore fall in this category of social structure. Criticisms surround this ideology. Most individuals would argue that conservatives are taking advantage of social reforms by the Marxists and Socialists as they are always afraid of disrupting public order. That means that the provisions in this ideology would be centrally managed unless they disrupt the social structure in an economy.

In conclusion, welfare capitalism will favour the old and the public since the economy has undergone several social reforms to address the limitations in the three ideologies. With most capitalists driving the social reforms we are enjoying today, the conservatives are always perceived as joyriders in the mixed economy we are experiencing today. On the other hand, the young are not left behind as they enjoy services that the government provides, such as credit score, education grants, housing, Medicare and Medicaid, and business loans. Although the burden is not for the old as they enjoy the fruits of their hard labour in their youth, the commitment to the economy should lead to reforms to support cost-sharing in serving the pressure by reducing these services at a young age.

How Can Sociology Help Us to Understand Different Family Formations?

Families form the core unit within American society, as so is in the rest of the world. Within the family, the members get support and care from other members as their social values get developed and natured. As the family situation changes, each family member undergoes drastic changes and restructures the family (Lo, 2020). The ability of the family unit to function well and nature the member’s well-being and serve as the basis for cohesion is mainly understood through studying sociological aspects within the society (Kühl, 2020). Contemporary American families have undergone drastic restructuring and changes to reflect the broader social, demographic, and economic transformations. In sociology, the family formations are best understood in terms of marriage patterns, the challenges in contemporary families, and family structure. The essay will critically address the sociologist’s perspective on family formation, addressing the challenges on modern families, the structure, and composition. The article will allow the reader to gain perspective from a sociologist’s perspective on the different family structures.

Marriage and family form the two social institutions that define the setting in a society. While it is becoming difficult for sociologists to agree on a single definition of marriage, most would agree that it is a social contract between two individuals based on a sexual relationship and the permanence of union (Malley, Walther, and Nichols, 2020, p 16). The complexity in defining marriage comes from the variations between the structure and formation of the unity. The complexity arises due to legal background, parties involved in forming the union, sexual orientation, and traditional social expectation of having children in the marriage (Lo, 2020). The social reforms and perceptions on marriage have brought about the changes now witness in defining a marriage without children, same-gender marriage, and polygamous marriage. Sociologists are also interested in defining the relationship between marriages and family as a social institution since it is understood that unions form a family. Families are also understood to be the basic social unit where society is built upon. The model that defines a family is generally understood as a husband, wife, children, and a pet from the traditional American family (Hemez, 2020). However, modern families are understood to take another form as families deviate from this model. In contrast, some families would take the structure of single parents, a same-sex couple, or remarriage after a divorce. Sociologists still contest whether these are families or not (Hemez, 2020). The prime for the debate surrounding a family structure is what constitutes a family.

Critical Sociologists tend to define family in terms of structure where each member in the family is given a specific role. Sociologists would always define a family in terms of the relationship between the members of the family. In the setup, a family is defined as recognising the emotions that link the two individuals and the economic factor (Kushins and Behounek, 2020, p 11). Therefore, the family is defined in terms of blood, marriage, adoption, or financial support that brings together individuals. It means that sociologists would define a family unit depending on the factor that drives individuals to enter into the union. The family orientation is determined by how a child enters into the family through birth or adoption (Kushins and Behounek, 2020, p 11). Procreation refers to a child that is begotten through sexual relationships in marriage. The cultural differences would always be known to have cultural significance in a family unit related to lineage.

The first paradigm is referred to as functionalism. Structural functionalism is a paradigm that seeks to explain how the family unit independently works together through defined roles to promote union and solidarity. That means that a family identifies several functions that define a family; reproduction, socialisation, care, emotional and economic support (Mahlert, 2020, p 3). In this paradigm, the family forms a unit where individuals are integrated to instil a culture in the young. Families are faced with challenges such as work, divorce, and children bearing. Families are also subjective to the ideology that all marriages will end up in divorce. Therefore, the perception by functionalists and other individuals would make individuals more cynical towards accepting that marriages do work.

Critical sociologists are quick to the point that families are always defined as private entities, and a consequence of the history that individuals see family matters to surround only members within a family (Kushins and Behounek, 2020, p 11). Therefore, issues that do not concern the family would not be engaging to a family member, such as politics and state economy. The family would only engage in activities that define the social set up such as divorce, domestic violence, and abuse (Kushins and Behounek, 2020, p 14). The paradigm would grow knowing that the state and the other legal jurisdiction do not have the right to be involved in family issues. Most same-sex families unable to have children would not be seen in this paradigm as their family setup is mainly defined by the involvement of other parties informing the union. Child adoption and homosexuality policies are what define the family in his orientation.

Finally, interactionists would always interpret the world in terms of symbols and their meaning in a family. In this paradigm, the family s symbolised by the father, mother, child. In another perception in the paradigm, the family should be defined by compassion and respect. The interactionists define the family as an objective unit that is always subject to constructs to the ebb and ever-changing meanings (Briggs, 2020). The paradigm can be understood as a constantly changing unit to address the challenges that contemporary families experience, such as work-home relationships, divorce, and childbearing. A family will continue to restructure itself with the engagement, such as the adoption of children, divorce and remarriage, the death of one partner, meaning the child is taken care of by a legal guardian, and the role in putting food on the table (Briggs, 2020). The family is no longer defined in terms of caregiver and breadwinner. The meanings are free-flowing, and meaning they are subjective to changes over time.

In conclusion, times are changing, meaning the way sociologists perceive marriage and a family also changes. New unions will always conform to address the challenges that occur due to social reforms. Marriage will no longer be defined through the emotional, economic, social, and political support being discussed at the union but conform with the needs of each member of the family. Conventionally marriage would be defined by the structure, orientation, and challenges being addressed, but the free-flowing definition restructures the sociological perspectives towards what and who forms a family.

How Are Theories of Social Class Relevant to Social Work Practice?

The social work theories describe, explain and make predictions to the social events based on scientific experiments, research, and investigation. In addition, the perspectives in social work will address issues based on psychology, philosophy, and economics to explain what motivates individuals to move across various stages in life (Duffy et al., 2016, p 127). The social workers would be exposed to a variety of social works theory, therefore, apply them in practice. That allows the workers to assume competence in the social work setups, which is essential in building the worker’s confidence. The two identified philosophers that seek to address the social class theories are Karl Max and Max Webber. The essay will describe the social work theory in different social classes and the United Kingdom’s social working setup. The six social working theories will be described in detail with the relevant social class theories.

The social work theories help the worker in their working environment analyse the cases presented, comprehend their customers, and create intercessions that can predict outcomes (Healy, 2014). These theories in practice would constantly evolve as new evidence would be generated about the social setups. The concepts also help the clients get the best services from the social worker. The social working theories allow the worker to suspend their beliefs and assumption during work, reducing unethical bias. That means that social workers should always use an evidence-based approach to investigate issues within the workplace and derive conclusions from their analysis (Healy, 2014). The worker would be seen to derive their decision from the evidence they analyse instead of using personal assumptions, emotions, and moods.

The social work theory forms the baseline for interventions and planning for any social worker in their workplace. The worker is given a guideline to address the customer’s needs through a scientific approach. As a result, the worker is better positioned to understand customer behaviour in complex situations and environments that would otherwise influence customer issues (Teater, 2014). When the workers understand the theory and apply them correctly, they can be guided through purpose and direction. The major challenge that most workers would face while using the social work theories in the workplace is theory choice. They need to choose an appropriate idea to address the issue at hand (Teater, 2014). The concepts prove a challenge in singling out a specific theory to address client needs due to the complexity in the client issues. What the workers do is to draw the knowledge and experience from the multiple approaches to address the situation at hand and predict the interventions that are best suited for the client. Six different social works theories are helpful in the social work environment. Social learning theory was initially discussed by Albert Bandura, which points out that learning occurs in an observation made to others in the way they behave. Social learning happens when the worker emulates by watching other individuals (Rosenstock, Strecher and Becker, 1988). The worker will only apply what they learn by experiencing situations that are almost or similar to what they observed to repeat the behaviour. Karl Marx’s social theory of class recognizes that within the working environment, conflict is inevitable. The theory identifies that social classes relate in an antagonistic relationship where the poor are discriminated against by the rich in society.

In an oppressive working environment, social learning theory establishes itself as an anti-oppressive theory that seeks to eliminate actions that oppress social workers. Therefore, social workers need to understand how to apply this theory in their working environment to eliminate issues such as harassment, abuse, and violation of work policies. Although modern ideas, determine by Max Webber, refute conflict in a working environment, social learning is still happening for both classes; therefore, societies in a capitalist environment will tend to lose more than they gain.

Systems theory suggests that social workers are complex systems and not individuals who work independently (Healy, 2014). The theory explains that individuals are influenced by the factors that govern working in the workplace. The factors that govern the behaviour include the worker’s friends, family, social setting, and the religious structures that depict the workers’ actions and thinking (Healy, 2014). The theory is applied when the social worker attempts to understand why the customers behave as influenced by the systems they are found in. The social workers can effectively use the systems theory in therapy sessions for workers who report a dysfunctional working system, harassment, and insubordination in the working environment. The approach recognises that life is characterised by conflict and oppression. Therefore, the systems theory of social work supports the theory of Marxism, identifying that a dysfunctional working environment needs to be understood for the system to eliminate class discrimination.

Erick Erikson discussed the psychological development theory, which based his argument that customers develop a series of eight stages that individuals pass through in life (Batra, 2013). These stages include the following

Trust and mistrust
Independence and Shame or Doubt
Initiative and Guilt
Individuality and Misperception
Familiarity and Isolation
Generativity and Inactivity
Industry and inferiority
Honesty and misery

According to the theory of Marxism, resource allocation for any system is always a challenge, making any system to be antagonistic. Organizations and social workers tend to create utility through maximization and address existing challenges. The psychological development theory argues that as individuals age, they always pass through these stages in life, and the social worker needs to understand which phase they are working with the customer (Batra, 2013). That helps the social worker better understand the challenges that need to be addressed for the customers in the developmental stage. In an oppressive working environment, the psychological development theory empowers the workers who are vulnerable and living in poverty and serve as contingencies for the availability of resources and jobs.

Sigmund Freud first discussed the psychodynamic theory based on his idea that humans are always biologically driven and always seek satisfaction (Heath and Heath, 1976). That would influence their customer’s behaviour leading to actions that are aggressive and sex-driven. A social worker from all social classes applies the theory in understanding and evaluating their client’s internal processes, therefore, guide the worker’s behaviour around the customer (Heath and Heath, 1976). Although Marxism would argue that a social worker from a poverty-stricken background would understand their client more if they are from the same social class compared to a different class, modern theirs refute this claim. Workers may examine how their customer’s experiences during childhood play an influence in their current lives. In an anti-oppressive working environment, the social worker applies the theory to organise and plan their work through analysis to understand the causes of aggression and oppression

The rationale choice theory addresses why individuals make the choices they make in life by factoring in the risks, costs, and benefits they derive from their decisions (Hedström and Stern, 2017). The theory argues that customers would always make rational choices and decisions through calculating the benefits and costs involved in the workplace (Heath and Heath, 1976). Contemporary theories of social class are best applied in understanding the rationale choice of customers for social workers as it bases its argument on collectivism and political hierarchies. One would perceive a decision or choice as irrational, but the theory insists that there is always some reasoning behind that choice. Managers, social workers, and customers collectively use the concept to influence the decision-making process that determines whether the working environment supports or is against oppressive working conditions.

Finally, the social exchange theory in the social working environment shows that relationships in the workplace are always built on cost-benefit analysis. The concept was first introduced by an Australian sociologist George Homans. In any working environment, individuals would always want to maximise an existing relationship through reciprocation (Heath and Heath, 1976). As the risks in the connection outweigh the benefits, they would like to terminate the relationship immediately. The theory helps social workers determine how to interact with one another in the workplace effectively (Cropanzano et al., 2017). The concept helps determine how the workers position their relationships with their clients to benefit the client.

In conclusion, social work theories help ensure that the workers in a social setup are practical, competent, and deliver quality services. As the workers create appropriate interventions for their clients, their behaviors and relationships are always governed by applying applicable theory. When the worker fully understands which concept to use, where and how they are presented with the appropriate tools required for addressing specific problems within their working environment. They are always evidence-based interventions as the process that governs their behaviour is always scientific.

References

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